Anatomy
the study of structure of the body
Four ways to study Anatomy
Inspection (physical exam) , Dissection (cadaver vs. comparative anatomy), Gross Anatomy (naked eye), Microscopic Anatomy (microscope)
Palpation
Touch
auscultation
Listen
percussion
tap
Physiology
the study of the function of the body
Organism
individual living thing
Organ System
group of organs that work together for a specific task
Organ
group of two or more tissue types with a specific function
Tissue
a group of similar cells that form a region of an organ & have similar structure and function
Cell
smallest unit of a living organism that can carry out the basic functions of life
Organelle
differentiated structure within a cell
Molecule
particle made up of at least two atoms
Atom
smallest particle matter with an unique chemical identity
Homeostasis
maintaining a constant internal environment or equilibrium
stress
any disruption of homeostasis that threatens physical or emotional well-being
Negative Feedback
process where the body senses a change and activates mechanism to negate or reverse it
components of negative feedback
receptor or sensor(senses the change), integrating or control center (process the information from the receptor and make a "decision" on how to respond), effector (cell or organ that carries out the corrective action)
Positive feedback
a self-amplifying cycle in which a physiological change leads to even more change in the same direction
Integumentary System
skin, hair, nails. Function: protection, thermo regulation, vitamin D
Skeletal System
bones, cartilage, ligaments. Function: support, protection, movement, blood cell formation
Muscular System
skeletal muscles. Function: movement, stability
Nervous System
nerves, brain, spinal cord, ganglia. Function: communication, coordination, motor control, sensation.
Endocrine System
pituitary, pineal, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, adrenals, pancreas, testes, ovaries. Function: hormones
Cardiovascular System
heart, blood vessels. Function: distribute nutrients, oxygen, hormones, waste, etc. Fluid balance.
Lymphatic System
lymph nodes, lymph vessels, thymus, spleen, tonsils. Function: defend against disease and recovery of excess tissue fluid.
Respiratory System
nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs. Function: absorb oxygen, discharge CO2, acid-base balance, speech.
Digestive System
mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, SI, LI, liver, gallbladder, pancreas. Function: nutrient breakdown and absorption.
Urinary System
kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra. Function: elimination of waste, regular blood pressure and blood volume, stimulate red blood cell (RBC) production, electrolyte and acid-base balance
Female Reproductive System
ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, mammary glands. Function: egg production, fetal development, make sex hormones, lactation.
Male Reproductive System
testes, vas deferens, prostate, penis. Function: sperm production, makes sex hormones.
Hypothetico-deductive method:
Four Steps:
1. observation.
2. hypothesize
3. experiment
4. conclusions & reporting
Inductive Method:
make numerous observation to draw generalizations and predictions. raises issue of proof
Considerations in experiments
Variable (any condition of an experiment), Experimental Group (group that contains the tested variable), Control Group (group that does not contain the tested variable)
Matter
anything that has mass and takes up space. All organisms are made of matter.
Element
a substance that cannot be changed into another substance. Ex. Hydrogen, Oxygen.
Atom
the smallest particle of an element that retains the characteristics of the element.
Neutron
neutral charge. (in nucleus)
Electrons
negative charge (orbit around nucleus)
Proton
positive charge (in nucleus)
Atomic number
number of proton
Atomic mass
protons + neutrons
Isotope
atoms of an element with different numbers of neutrons
Molecule
particle made of 2 or more atoms united by a chemical bond.
diatomic molecule
molecule consist of 2 of the same type of atom bonded together
compound
molecule consist of 2 or more different elements
Ions
charged atoms with unequal numbers of protons and electrons. They give up or gain an electron to try to become more stable.
Cation
positively charged ion. gave up an electron
Anion
negatively charged ion. gained an electron
Electrolytes
salts that ionize in water and form solutions capable of conducting electricity.
= ions
Free radical
a chemical particle carrying an odd number of electrons.
BAD
Antioxidant
a chemical that neutralized free radicals
GOOD
Ionic bonds
two ions are attracted to each other and bond because of an opposite charge. weak.
covalent bonds
two atoms share electrons. [strongest bond]
Non-polar covalent bond
evenly distributing charge
Polar covalent bond
water. have slight opposite charges on either end
Hydrogen bonds
water molecules. the - side of the molecule (oxygen) is attracted to the + side of another molecule [hydrogen]. Not stuck together, just stay close. weakest
Acid
a compound that releases hydrogen ions in solution
Base
a compound that accept hydrogen ions
Salt
an ionic compound that does NOT contain H+ or OH- and comes from an acid-base reaction
pH
the measurement of the H+ concentration in a solution. Expression of acidity
pH=7
neutral pH
pH<7
acidic pH
pH>7
Basic or Alkaline pH
low pH
higher H
Normal blood & tissue pH
7.35- 7.45
Buffer
any mechanism that resists large changes in pH. maintain homeostasis for pH.
Chemical buffers
take up or give off H+ ions
Physiological buffers
control output of acids, bases, or CO2.
3 Chemical Buffers
1. Bicarbonate: Shift to the right, equals more Hydrogen in body which makes pH lower. Shift to left decreases Hydrogen ions, which increases pH.
2. Phosphate:
Proteins:
2 Physiological Buffers
1. Respiratory system: 2-3 times stronger than chemical buffers. breath CO2. ventilation less or more adds or decreases CO2.
2. Urinary System: Because it actually expels H+ from the body, the urinary system is the strongest buffering system in our body.
adhesion
tendency of one substance to cling to another
cohesion
the tendency of molecules of the same substance to cling to each other
capillary action
the movement of liquid along the surface of a solid due to the attraction of the liquid molecules to the solid molecules
surface tension
manifestation of cohesion of water at the surface
high specific heat
the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of a substance by 1 degree C
High heat of vaporization
amount of heat it takes to convert liquid to vapor
Water
Covalently bonded, polar molecule.
Solvency
ability to dissolve other chemicals.
Chemical reactivity
ability to participate in chemical reactions.
Organic chemistry
the study of carbon compounds
Four types of organic molecules:
Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, Nucleic Acid.
monomer or subunit of carbohydrated
monosaccharides (aka simple sugars) ex. glucose, fructose
Functions: source of energy and in structure
Lipids:
Monomers:
fatty acids and alcohols.
Functions: energy storage. thermal insulation. cushion. cell membrane structure. chemical signals between cells
Proteins. Monomer:
amino acids.
functions:
structure: Keratin (hair, skin, nails). Collagen (cartilage, deep layers of skin)
communication: hormones
Membrane transport
Metabolism: enzymes
Protection: antibodies, clotting proteins
Nucleic Acids:monomer:
nucleotides
example: DNA, RNA
functions: heredity, protein synthesis
ATP
Adenosine Triphosphate. a nucleotide. The fuel of living cells.
Dehydration Synthesis
assembling organic molecules by extracting water. aka condensation.
Hydrolysis
breaking up organic molecules using water.
Proteins that function as biological catalysts
lower the activation energy [energy needed to start a reaction], speeding up chemical processes
Enzymes are:
ubstrate {substance the enzymes act on} specific
not consumed by the reaction they catalyze
affected by pH and temperature outside of the ideal range which change their shape. must be in perfect condition to work
pH and temperature outside of the ideal range can change the shape of an enzyme (disrupts hydrogen bonds) [[ enzymes must be in perfect shape and condition to work]]