alpha particle
a positively charged particle consisting of 2 protons and 2 neutrons.

amphoteric
an ion molecule that can act as an acid or a base

beta decay
a nuclear reaction in which an electron or a positron is absorbed by or emitted from the nucleus of an atom

effusion
the process by which a gas escapes through a pinhole into a region of lower pressure

elastic collision
a collision in which no kinetic energy is lost

ion product constant of water (K<sub>w</sub>)
1.0*10<sup><sub>-14</sub></sup>

network solid
a solid in which every atom is covalently bonded to its nearest neighbors to form an extended array of atoms rather than individual molecules

β<sup>-</sup> decay
neutron → proton + electron

β<sup>+</sup> decay
proton → neutron + positron

diamagnetic
an atom that has all of its electrons spin-paired

paramagnetic
an atom where all the electrons are not spin-paired

Energy of a photon, E
<img data-image_id="aeca2070-ba3b-4b53-ab00-b764fba15765" src="data:image/jpeg;base64,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" width="142" >

amount of heat, q, accompanying a phase transition
q=nΔH, n is number of moles

q=
CΔT=mcΔT

rate of effusion if proportional to...
<img data-image_id="f749748d-02c5-4e6c-9278-9fe021d50a79" src="data:image/jpeg;base64,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" width="47" >

mole fraction, X
<img data-image_id="b5b6f2c4-cc8a-46d8-ad84-ba100779da5f" 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" width="150" >

Raoult's law: vapor pressure, p
p<sub>A</sub>=X<sub>A</sub>P<sup>o</sup><sub>A</sub>

boiling-point elevation
ΔT<sub>b</sub>=k<sub>b</sub>im

Freezing point depression
ΔT<sub>f</sub>=-k<sub>f</sub>im

Osmotic pressure, Π
Π=MiRT

relation of pH and pK<sub>a</sub>
<img data-image_id="d67d4772-931b-4d79-8801-be212842a8d4" 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" width="150" >

ΔG<sup>o</sup> for electrochemisty
ΔG<sup>o</sup>=-nFE<sup>o</sup>

reaction if E<sup>o</sup> &gt; 0
spontaneous

reaction if E<sup>o</sup> &lt; 0
non spontaneous

melting point of ionic compound depends on...
the strength of electrostatic attraction (f=kqq/r^2)

vapor pressure only depends on..
the temperature and intermolecular forces

Van der Waals forcers only occur between what kind of molecules?
neutral

in general, the stronger the lewis acid..
the larger the positive charge and the smaller the ionic radius

what is the volume of 1 mole of a gas at STP?
22.4 L