Have the same Z (protons)
Isotopes
have the same A (atomic mass)
Isobars
have the same neutrons
Isotones
Electron volt (eV)
Kinetic energy acquired by an electron accelerated through potential difference of 1 volt
Electron charge (e)
Quantity of charge possessed by electron
e= 1.602x10-19 coulombs
wave theory and value or c
c=λf
c=speed of light in a vacuum
3E+8 m/sec
particle theory and value for h
E=hf
h=6.626e-34 Planck's constant
Energy in Joules
what is 1eV in joules
1.602E-19 Joules
where does X-rays come from?
electron
where does gamma rays come from?
from nucleus
What are the characteristics of neutron radiation?
Have high energy (several Mev)
Long range due to lack of charge
High H content materials for shielding
Internal and external hazard.
can make something radioactive
Discovered uranium to be weakly radioactive?
Becquerel
what is Stopping power S
average linear energy lost by a charged particle per unit distance of travel
depends on:
particle energy
absorber z
absorber density
These have high LET
alpha and neutrons
these have low LET
beta, gamma, X-rays
Which beta undergoes annihilation? produces 2 .511 Mev photons at 180 degrees
Beta Positron
Unit for density of thickness of material
mg/cm2
Fast/ high energy neutrons are:
> 1MeV
Slow /thermal or low energy neutrons
< 10eV
Coherent scattering photon energy
<= 15-30 keV around 10kev
Compton effect is higher for.
for hydrogen (water)
Pair production threshold energy
1.022 MeV
Triplet production threshold energy
2.044 MeV
Photodisintegration threshold photon energy
>7 Mev
HVL =
0.693/mu (cm-1)
1 Ci= in DPM
2.22E12 DPM
1 Ci in Bq
3.7E10 Bq
Activity Equation
A=Ae^-(.693t/T1/2)
Equation to look for the number of radioactive atoms?
Ai=0.693/T1/2X N1
1R = in C/Kg
2.58 E-4 C/Kg
Estimation of gamma exposure
X=6CEn/D2
C=activity in CI
Distance in FEET
Exposure rate using gamma constant
x=r (Q/D2)
distance in CM
1 foot = cm
30.48 cm
ICRP exposure standard for SKIN
50 rem/yr
ICRP exposure standard for EXTREMITIES
50 REM/YR
ICRP exposure standard for MINORS
10% OF ANNUAL LIMITS
ICRP exposure standard for EMBRYO/FETUS
500 MREM IN GESTATION PERIOD
ICRP exposure standard for GENERAL PUBLIC
100 MREM/YR
Gas Filled Detector Curve 6 regions
1-Recombination region
2-Ionization region
3-Proportional region
4-Limited Proportional region
5-Geiger-Mueller region
6-Continuous Discharge region
Radiation in a mammogram exam?
.13 mSv
What is the Annual Limit on Intake?
ALI
20mSv
What is the assumed radiation risk for workers?
.04 Sv-1 for fatal cancer
.008 Sv-1 for non fatal cancer and severe genetic effects
what is the assume radiation risk for members of the public?
.05 Sv-1 for fatal cancer
.01 Sv-1 for non fatal cancer
.013 Sv-1 for severe genetic effects
what are the public dose limits?
1mSv /year based on stochastic effects
15 mSv/year to lens of the eye
50 mSv/year to skin, hands, and feet
2 mSv to the women's abdomen once pregnancy has been declared.
Based on deterministic effects
What is the total average annual population exposure worldwide due to low LET radiation?
.9 mSv
Recombination Region low applied voltage
< 50V
Ionization chamber region increase applied voltage
200-300 V
Advantages of Ion chambers
-can measure low exposures (microR/hr)(natural background)
-Reasonably flat energy response
-Good for beta, gamma, and x-rays
-No dead time concerns
Ion chambers Disadvantages
-sensitivity depends on volume
-can be slow, erratic
-non-unifor exposure leads to under estimate of dose
-environmental effects
Proportional region 3 applied voltage further increases:
>500 V
Advantages of proportional counters
-measure energies of incident radiations
-useful in mixed fields
Disadvantages proportional counters
dead time (0.5 to 10 micro se)
voltage fluctuations
requires gas supply
heavy and expensive
Region of limited proportionality as applied voltage increases:
gas multiplication factor changes.
Geiger-Muller region treshhold voltage:
900-1000 V
Advantages of GM counters
-High sensitivity
-fast response time
-simple design, low cost
Disadvantages of GM counters
-Low dead time (100 to 300 micros)
-strong energy dependence (over responds at low energies)
-Saturation
Continuous discharge
Voltages above GM region are not used
what is scintillation?
absorption of photon energy by substance and re-emission as visible light
scintillation prompt?
Photoluminescence <10^-8 sec
Scintillation delayed?
Phosphorescence (delayed)
ei TL and OSL
3 types of scintillation detectors
Solid scintillaiton
Portable counters
Liquid scintillation
Advantages of solid scintillation
high sensitivity for gamma
high efficiency
Disadvantages of solid scintillation
expensive and fragile
advantages of portable counters
high sensitivity for beta and gamma
flat energy response if tissue equivalent (mcrorem meter)
disadvantages of portable counters
expensive
high background
advantages for liquid scintillation
high sensitivity for beta
best method for low energy beta
disadvantages for liquid scintillation
expensive
quenching (LSC)
liquid waste
semiconductor detectors create:
a charge "depleted zone" at junction
-zone is sensitive volume
-sensitivity depends on depleted zone size
-size of zone depends on applied voltages
output pulse
collection of ions lead to this
What are the advantages of semiconductors detectors?
energy resolution
can be used for particles by making N layer very thin (2 atoms)
-smaller depleted zone, but sufficient to stop particle
-alpha spectroscopy
Disadvantages of semiconductors detectors?
detectors must be cooled to very low ten (liquid nitrogen) (-196 C or 410 F)
formula to calculate detector efficiency
efficiency=CPM/DMP
What are the advantages of digital pocket ion chamber?
-small, compact
-reasonably sensitive and accurate
-immediate readout
-store exposure record to extended period of time
-data download for storage
What are the disadvantages of a digital pocket ion chamber?
-expensive
-limited exposure range
-no permanent, legal record
what is Doubling Dose?
Radiation dose, if delivered to large population, would double the number of spontaneous mutation.
What is the estimated ICRP human doubling dose?
100 Rad
Uranium Miners
Increase risk of lung cancer demonstrated.
Atributed to radon and daughters exposure
What is WLM working level month
Unit of radon decay product exposure
Rule of thumb: 1 WL about 120 pCi/L radon concentration
No lung cancer <120 WLM; highest risk 120 to 600 WLM--Today: 1 to 2 WLM/yr (5 lung cancer death/106 person-yr/WLM)
How many days biological half life for Class D?
< 10 days biological half life
How many days of biological half life for Class W?
10 to 100 days biological half-life
What is workload (W)
the amount of time the X-ray unit is in operations. number of exams at a given technique. Averaged over a year if possible
what is 1 R in rad (tissue)
.97 Rad
what is 1 R in rad (air)
.87 Rad
what is T?
Occupancy factor: fraction of the beam on time that a shielded area is occupied by a given individual.
What are the three sources of radiation?
Primary, leakage, and scatter
what is shielding task?
barrier is acceptable if it decreases the radiation dose behind the barrier to P/T
How is Workload specified? (W)
mA*min per week
How many days of biological half life for Class Y?
>100 days biological half life
what is the average annual exposures worldwide to natural radiation sources (high and low LET)?
2.4 mSv
range of 1-10 mSv
Leakage for xray tube housing shouldn't be more than:
100 mR/hr
How far must patients be from collimator?
15 cm for skin sparing
what is PBL?
Positive beam imitation are electronic sensors in image receptors that adjust collimtors so the xray beam is no larger thanimage receptor.
how much is inherent filtration?
.5mm of Al equivalent
what is total filtration?
2.5 mm. and it's checked annually
For equipment design, what do we want exposure reproducibility to be?
Variability of 5% or less
what do we want exposure linearity to be?
less than 10%
what reduces pt dose in film screen?
use of intensifying screenings
faster screen film systems
higher KVP
when do you use grids?
body parts of >10cm
increase dose but improves contrast
relationship of airgap technique and dose?
it doesn't eliminate increase in dose
what should SSD source to skin distance must be to reduce effects of inverse square fall of
>30 cm
Advantages of image intensifier in fluoro
-increased image brightness
-saves time for radiologist
-requires lower mA so lower dose
what is the exposure rate limit at table top with image intensifier 12" above it.
10 R/min
what is the exposure rate limit with high level control or boost mode?
20 R/min
what should SSD be for fixed and mobile fluoroscopy?
fixed=no less than 15cm
mobile=no less than 12cm
what are the advantages of minimzing OID in fluoro?
-reduces magnification
-reduces unsharpness (blur)
-allows image intensifier to intercep more scatter
-decrease occupational exposure
what are the repercussions of using large OID?
-small SSD
-increased magnification
-more geometric blur
-more occupational exposure
how thick should lead apron be?
.25 mmPb equivalent
if bucky and spot film curtain are not used, exposure can be more than?
100mR/hr at 2 feet from side of table
what is the exposure at 1ft of the table with no arm drape?
200mR/hr
Characteristics of a controlled space?
-occupational exposure
-Individuals monitored
-limitation 100 mrem/week max
characteristics of uncontrolled spaced?
-incidental public exposure
-individuals not monitored
-limitation is 2 mrem/week maximum
what is the conversion of R to Rad?
1 R=.87 Rad in air
1 R=.97 Rad in tissue
Unit for Air Kerma
Gy
The sum of the weighted equivalent for all irradiated tissues or organs
Effective Dose
E=sum Wt X HT
How much time the x-ray unit is in operation?
Workload
ma*min per week
What is the fraction of the beam-on time that a shielded area is occupied by a given individual?
Occupancy Factors=T
What is the shielding task?
barrier is acceptable if it decreases the radiation dose behind the barrier to P/T
what are the assumed conservative distances?
.3 meters out
.5 meters up
1.7 meters from floor below up
what are the 3 sources of radiation?
primary
leakage
scatter
primariy rad=useful beam
second rad=scatter+leakage
How high do we shield walls?
2.1 meters
Lead dimensions for Radiographic and CT rooms.
radi and fluo=1/32" and 1/16"
CT=1/16"
bone density and mammo=none
how bad was the
contamination of radioactive waste discharged to the Techa River?
2.75 MCi
in the
1960
what is RDD
Radiological Dispersal Device
Designed
to spread radioactive material through a detonation of conventional explosives
or other nonexplosive mean
"dirty
bomb"
ei. po-210 poisoned ex KGB agent
what is SRD?
Simple Radiological
Device.
Causing radiological exposrue without an explosion.
Radioactive waste
waste contaminated iwth or containing radioisotopes
transuranic waste
100 mnograms per gm of alpha emittng radioisotopes
beyond uranium on periodic table. t1/2 20yrs
high level radioactive waste
hily radioactive; fission products (spent fuel)
Low Level Radioactive waste
(low activity/high vol)
not high level or transuranic waste
Uranium Mill tailings
from the mining and milling of uranium ore
NORM Waste
naturally occuring rad material
not regulated by NRC
NARM
NORM or Accelerator-produced Radioactive material
not regul by NRC
Mixed waste
Radioactive and hazardous
Due to chemical or biological materials
class A waste classification
-usually segregated wastes
-lowest isotope concentration
-95% LLRW is clas "A
Packagin reqs for class A
- <1% reestanding liquid,
-carbard/fibergboard boxes unnaceptable,
-non-explosive, not biological and non-ppyrophoric
Class B waste class
-intermediate isotope concentration
-special stability reqs
Must be able to maintain its physical form
-Container structural reqs
Class C waste
-Highest allowable isotope conce
-Meet reqs of class B
-Special precautions to protect against HUMAN INTRUSION
Current US radioactive waste disposal sites are in?
Handford WA
Evirocare in Clive UT
New in Texas
What is Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP)
World's first underground repository licensed to safely and permanently disposed of transuranic waste from research and production of nuclear weapons
wasted stored in salt mine 2150 feet underground near Carlsbad NM
Yucca Mountain
DOE site for highly radioactive spent fuel from nuclear power plants and high level waset from weapons program
Located in Nevada
was supposed to open in March 2017
NRC Lessons learned after Fukosh
-Mitigation strategies to respond to extreme natural events resulting in the loss of power and plants
-Ensuring reliable hardened containment vents
-Enhancing spent fuel pool instrumentation
Major radionuclines of concern in Chernobyl accident
Cs-137 and I-131
ARS and associated fatalities did not occur among the general poplation of
Chernoble accident
Radioactive Waste discharged to the Techa River when?
early 1950-1960
2.75 Mci discharged
Could not use as drinking water source...ban ignored
External radiation was up to 120 times bkgd
What happened in Kyshtym accident?
stem explosion 29sep 1957
200 died of radiation sickness in years following accident
Slow evaquation, increase dose
what happened in Karachay Lake incident
120 MCi discharged beggining 1951-53
Low precipitaion allowed lake level to recede.
Contamination was 3-9mrem/year
They are concerned wih drinking water
Which are the two bomb accidents?
Mars Bluff, SC march 11 1958
-B-47 accidently released bomb, several injured
GOldsboro, NC janu 24 1961
-B-52 caught fire, exploded. 3 crew killed.
-2 bombs released.
bomb 1-4 out 4 arming devices activated
bomb 2-plunged into a muddy field.
Effects of Normal explosive?
500-2000 lbs TNT
Blast (100%)
Effects of Nuclear Detonation?
Blast 50%
Thermal Energy 35%
Radioactive 14%
Electromagnetic pulse 1%
Economic and social disruption
Environmental damage
what is RDD?
Radiological Dispersal Device
Designed to spread radioactive material through a detonation of conventional explosives or other non explosive materials
can be silent inteded to spread in food or water. ei Po-210 poisoning of agent
RDD possible outcomes?
-contamination of people and environment
can deny the use of facilities and areas
will most probably have significant economic impact
may hamper emergency response efforts and can delay hospital treatment
-material and weather dependent
What happens with the use of RDD?
Explosion spreads radioactive material (contamination)
Nuclear detonation does NOT occur
Extreme Caution Radiation Boundary:
10,000 mR/hr
High Radiation Boundary:
1000 mR/hr
Medium Radiation Boundary?
100 MR/hr
Low radiation boundary?
10 mR/hr
Incident in Goiania Brazil?
CS-137 was rubrued expsing 250 people, killing 4. Dose ranged 50-300
What is Simple Radiological Device (SRD)?
Causing radiological exposure without an explosion.
Ex. P-32 in the water cooler at NIH, lunch at MIT
I-125 in food at Brown university
Radiation Area Caution sign means?
Rad levels could result in an individual receiving a dose equivalent in excess of .005 rem in one hour at 30 cm from rad source
What does High Radiation Area Caution sign mean?
dose equiv could result in excess of 0.1 in one hour at 30 centimeters
What does Very High Radiation Area mean?
dose of 500 rads in one hour at 1 meter from radiation surface
Examples of Engineering Controls
Fume hoods
Glove boxes
ventilation systems
vacuum systems
hot cells
shielding rooms
interlocks, mazes, "fail-safe"
Examples of PPE
Lead lined gloves
lead lab coats
Cover alls
Shoe covers or boots
HEad covers
Respirators
Preventive contamination
-Containment: primary and secondary, engineering controls
-Spill control
-Liquid transfer techniques
-handling precautions
-protective clothing
Administrative controls:
-licensing and permits
-stay times
-Radiation surveys
-Leak tests and shutter tests
-Inventories
-Enforcement options
Leaking source legal limit?
0.005microCi
12 Commandments of radiation safety
awareness
avoidance
time
distance
source shielding
source reduction
dispersal
personal barrier
contamination control
effect mitigation
optimal technology
limit other expsures
Lethal doses?
3.5-4.5 Sv
First clinical sign of Chronic Radiation Syndrome
-reduction in blood leukocytes
-reduction in platelet counts
-bone marrow hypoplasia
-Leucopenia is generally associated with a reduced number of granulocytes
-Lymphocyte counts is less affected' but at high doses >4Gy usually lead to pronounced persistent leucopenia
Haematopoietic changes accompanied by:
changes in immune, nervous, cardiovascular, muscoloskeletal systems and in the GI tract
-High doses 4.5Gy-Encephalomyelitis-type changes
-Reduced resistance to infection
Dysfunction in othe organs
-Reduced secretary funtion of the gastric mucosa, mild thyroid dysfunction,
What is the approx background radiation in the US?
300 mREM
Quality Factors:
Gamma, Xray, beta, Hw=1
Thermal Neutrons=2
Fast Neutrons, Protons=10
Alpha=20
What is CEDE?
Committed Effective Dose Eq
Represents radiation risk from internal radioactivity that is equivalent in risk to uniform whole body external exposure of the same numerical number
What is TEDE (Total Effective Dose Equivalent):
Sum of external deep-dose equivalent and internal dose equivalent (CEDE)
Summation is not required if estimated dose is less than 10% of he annual dose
Internal Dose classes:
Class D:
< 10 days biological half-life
Class W
10-100 days biological hal-life
Class Y
>100 days biological half-life
Problems with cancer risk models:
-cancers are indistinguishable
-Long latency period
-Cannot perform human experiments
-Studies may suggest radiation as the cause of cancer but
*33% natural backgorund risk
Multiple causes of cancer
Effective dose in a chest xray
0.08mSV
Early Effects to Skin, Blood, and Thyroid dysfunction. DETERMNISTIC
Erythema-200-500 rads
Epilation 400 rads
Ulceration >1000 rads
Lymphocite decrease 25-30 rads
Thyroid dysfunction 30 rem
Classic symptoms of high doses?
-nausea
-vomiting
-anorexia
-possibly diarrhea depending on dose.
Acute Effects with Dose:
Hematopoietic Syndrome-2-5 Gy
GI Syndrome-5-12 Gy
Cerebrovascular Syndrome-100 Gy
Vomiting with ARS begins with doses of:
6-8 Gray
Delay time of 1 hour
chance of developing cancer from a 1 rem whole body dose?
0.02%
Skin Cancer and Leukemia common in:
early xray workers, physicists and engineers
Lung cancer common in:
-pichblende miners in Saxony
-Uranium miners
Bone tumors common in:
-Radium Dial workers
-20s and 30s radium treast ments for TB and Ankylosing Spondilitis
3 types of chromosonal abberrations lethal to cell:
Dicentric
Centric Ring
Anaphase Bridge
2 Important Non-lethal chro rearrangements:
Symmetric Translocations
Deletions(Interstitial and Terminal)
Radiosensitivity of Lymphocytes:
Single most sensitive cell
Threshold about 25 rem
Few hundred rem results in sever drop in circulating lymphocyte count within hours