Parasympathetic -autonomic nervous system -"rest-and-digest" Sympathetic "fight-or-flight" Hindbrain contains cerebellum, medulla, oblangata, and reticular formation Midbrain contains inferior and superior colliculi Forebrain Contains thalamus, hypothalamus basal ganglia, limbic system, and cerebral cortex Thalamus relay station for sensory information Hypothalamus -maintains homeostasis -integrates with endocrine system through the hypophyseal portal system that connects it to the anterior pituitary Basal ganglia smoothens movements and helps maintain postural stabililty Limbic system Controls emotion and memory. Includes septal nuclei (pleasure-seeking), amygdala(fear and aggression), hippocampus(memory), and fornix(communication with the limbic system) Lobes of the cerebral cortex: Frontal Parietal  Occipital Temporal Frontal Lobe -Executive function -impulse control  -long-term planning(prefrontal cortex) -motor function(primary motor cortext) -speech production(Broca's area) Parietal -Sensation of touch -pressure  -temp. -pain(somatosensory cortex) -spatial processing -orientation and manipulation Occipital Visual Processing Temporal -Speech processing(auditory cortex) -speech perception (Wernicke's area) -memory -emotion (limbic system) Acetylcholine -Voluntary muscle control -parasympathetic NS -attention and alertness Epinephrine and Norepinephrine Fight-or-flight responses, wakefulness, alertness Dopamine -Smooth movements  -Postural stability Serotonin -Mood -Sleep  -eating -dreaming GABA Brain "stabilization" Endorphins Natural painkillers Sensation vs Perception Sensation=conversion of phys. stimuli into neurological signals Perception=processing of sensory information to make sense of its significance Threshold the min. stimulus that causes a change in signal transduction Weber's Law states that the JND for a stimulus is proportional to the magnitude of the stimulus, and this proportion is constant over most of the range of possible stimuli Signal detection theory the effects of nonsensory factors, such as experiences, motives, and expectations, on perception of stimuli Response Bias examined using signal detection experiments with four possible outcomes: -hits -misses -false alarms -correct negatives Adaptation a decrease in response to a stimulus over time Visual Pathway Retina=>optic nerve=>optic chiasm=>optic tracts=>lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) of thalamus=>visual radiations=>visual cortex cochlea detects sound Utricle and saccule detect linear motion semicircular canals detect rotational acceleration Auditory pathway cochlea=>vstibulocochlear nerve=>MGN of thalamus=>auditory cortex Bottom-up(data-driven) processing -recognition of objects by parallel processing and feature detection. -Slower but less prone to mistakes Top-down (conceptually-driven) processing -recognition of an object by memories and expectations, with little attention to detail. -Faster, but more prone to mistakes Gestalt Principles ways that the brain can infer missing parts of an image when it is incomplete Habituation the process of becoming used to a stimulus Dishabituation occurs when a second stimulus intervenes, causing resensitization to the original stimulus Observational learning the acquisition of behavior by watching others Associative learning pairing together stimuli and responses, or behaviors and consequences Classical conditioning a form of associative learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus such that the neutral stimulus alone produces the same response as the unconditioned stimulous, the neutral stimulus thus becomes the conditioned stimulus Operant Conditioning a form of associative learnign in which the frequency of a behavior is modified using reinforcement(increases behavior) or punishment(decreases the behavior) Dyssomnias amount or timing of sleep Ex.) insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnea, sleep deprivation Parasomnias Odd behaviors during sleep Ex.) night terrors, sleep walking(somnambulism) Drug addiction mediated by the mesolimbic pathway, which includes the nucleus accumbens, medial forebrain bundle and ventral tegmental area (Dopamine is the main neurotransmitter) Encoding process of putting new information into memory Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development Sensorimotor stage preoperational stage  concrete operational stage formal operational stage Sensorimotor stage: Focuses on manipulating the environment to meet physical needs through circular reactions; Object permanence ends this stgae Preoperational stage focuses on symbolic thinking, egocentrism(ability to imaginve what another person thinks of feels) and centration(focusing on only one aspect of a phenomenon Concrete operational stage focuses on understanding the feelings of others and manipulating physical (concrete) objects Formal operational stage focuses on abstract thought and problem solving Deductive reasoning deriving conclusions from general rules Inductive reasoning deriving generalizations from evidence Heuristics simplified principles used to make decisions based; "rules of thumb" Selective Attention allows one to pay attention to a particular stimulus while determining if additional stimuli require attention in the background Divided attention uses autonomic processing to pay attention to multiple activities at one time Wernicke's area language comprehension;  (Wernickes aphasia=fluent, nonsensical aphasia with lack of comprehension) Broca's area Motor function of speech; (Broca's aphasia=nonfluent aphasia in which generating each word requires great effort) Arcuate fasciculous connects Wernicke's and Broca's areas; damage results in conduction aphasia(inability to repeat words despite intact speech generation and comprehension) Motivation Theories Instinct theory=innate, fixed patterns of behavior in response to stimuli Arousal theory=the state of being awake and reactive to stimuli;aim for optimal level of arousal for a given task(Yerkes-Dodson Law) Drive reduction theory=individuals act to relieve internal states of tension Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs prioritizes needs into 5 categories: 1. Physiological needs(highest priority) 2. Safety and security 3. Love and belonging 4. self-esteem 5. Self-actualization(lowest Priority) Seven universal emotions Happines sadness contempt  surprise  fear disgust  anger James-Lang theory of Emotion Physical arousal instigates the experience of a specific emotion Cannon-Bard theory of emotion Emotions and bodily changes do not share a cause-and-effect relationship. Rather, they occur simultaneously, following a stimulating event. Schachter-Singer theory of emotion People's experience of emotion depends on two factors: physiological arousal and the cognitive interpretation of that arousal. Primary appraisal classifying a potential stressor as irrelevant, benign-positive, or stressful Secondary appraisal directed at evaluating whether the organism can cope with the stress based on harm, threat and challenge Three stages of the general adaption syndrome alarm, resistance, and exhaustion Self-concept the sum of the ways in which we describe ourselves: in the present, who we used to be, and who we might be in the future Identities individual components of our self-concept related to the groups to which we belong Self-esteem our evaluation of ourselves Self-efficacy the degree to which we see ourselves as being capable of a given skill in a given situation Locus of control a self-evaluation that refers to the way we characterize the influences in our lives. Either internal(success or failure is a result of our own actions) or External(success or failure is the result of outside factors) Schizophrenia psychotic disorder characterized by distortions of reality and disturbances in content and form of thought, perception, and behavior Positive symptoms include hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized thought and behavior. negative symptoms disturbance of affect and avolition Major depressive disorder contains at least one major depressive episode Pervasive depressive disorder a depressed mood (either dysthymia or major depression) for at least 2 years Bipolar 1 disorder contains at least one manic episode Bipolar II disorder  contains at least one hypomanic episode and at least one major depressive episode Cyclothymic disorder contains hypomanic episodes with dysthymia Freud's stages of psychosexual development In Freudian psychology, psychosexual development is a central element of the psychoanalytic sexual drive theory, that human beings, from birth, possess an instinctual libido (sexual energy) that develops in five stages. Each stage – the oral, the anal, the phallic, the latent, and the genital – is characterized by theerogenous zone that is the source of the libidinal drive. Sigmund Freud proposed that if the child experienced sexual frustration in relation to any psychosexual developmental stage, he or she would experience anxiety that would persist into adulthood as a neurosis, a functional mental disorder.[1][2] Erikson's stages of psychosocial development -stems from conflicts that are the result of decisions we are forced to make about ourselves and the environment around us at each phase of life  -trust v mistrust; autonomy vs. shame and doubt; initiative vs guilt, industry vs inferiority, identity vs role confusion...... Kholberg's theory of moral reasoning development -describes the approaches of individuals to resolving moral dilemmas -6 stages divided into 3:    Preconventional    Conventional    Postconventional Panic disorder  recurrent attacks of intense, overwhelming fear and sympathetic nervous system activity with no clear stimuli. (It may lead to agoraphobia)  Dissociative amnesia inability to recall past experience.  May involve dissociative fugue, a sudden change in location that can involve the assumption of a new identity Dissociative identity disorder two or more personalities that take control of behavior Depersonalization/derealization disorder feelings of detachment from the mind and body, or from the environment Psychoanalytic perspective -personality results from unconscious urges and desires -Freud: id,superego,ego -Jung: collective unconscious and archetypes  Humanistic perspective Emphasizes internal feelings of healthy individuals as they strive toward happiness and self-realization Maslow: hierarchy of needs Rogers: unconditional positive regard Conversion disorder  unexplained symptoms affecting motor or sensory function Personality disorder clusters Cluster A: (odd, eccentric, "weird") paranoid schizotypal, schizoid Cluster B: (dramatic, emotional, "wild") antisocial, borderline, narcissistic Cluster C: (anxious, fearful, "worried) avoidant, dependent, obsesive-compulsive