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What is the self?
A symbolic construct
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What does the self reflect?
- Consciousness of our own identity
- Awareness that we exist as an individual, separate from other individuals
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What is self awareness?
A psychological state in which people are aware of their traits, feelings and behaviors
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Lewis and Brooks performed their study in what year?
1978
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What was Lewis and Brooks (1978) study?
- Put a spot of rouge on the nose of babies and then put them in front of a mirror
- Around 18 months, children recognized that the reflections was themselves
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Where do scientists believe self awareness exists in the brain?
Prefrontal cortex in the anterior cingulate
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What group of scientists researched biological correlates of self-perceptions and perspective taking?
Mitchell, Banaji, and Macrae (2005)
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What are the two differences in temporary self awareness?
Private and public
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What are some factors of private self awareness, discovered through different studies?
- Intensified emotional response
- Report with greater accuracy
- More likely to adhere to personal standards of behavior
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What are some factors of public self awareness?
- Evaluation apprehension
- Adherence to social standards of behavior
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What is a chronic differences in self awareness?
Having a self-conscious personality trait or not
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If an individual is high in private self-consciousness, do they experience lowered or heightened self awareness?
Heightened
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If an individual is high in public self-consciousness how do they feel about others around them?
They are concerned with how they are perceived by others
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What year did Scheier and Carver perform their self awareness study?
1977
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What study did Scheier and Carver (1977) perform?
- Private self awareness study
- Participants read aloud positive or negative statements
- Participants who looked in the mirror during this task were more privately self aware and had more extreme emotional responses than those who did not look in a mirror
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How do individuals organize self knowledge?
With self schemas
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What are self schemas?
How we expect ourselves to think, feel and behave in a particular situation
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When do self schemas become active?
In relevant situations
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What information do self schemas provide us in a situation?
How we should respond, based on our beliefs of who we are
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What are self-schematic traits?
Traits important to our self concept
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What are somewhat schematic traits?
Traits that describe our self to some extent
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What are a-schematic traits?
Traits that do not describe our perception of our self
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What are the theories of self-comparison?
- Self Regulation Theory
- Self Discrepancy Theory
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What are the theories of individual comparison?
- Social Comparison Theory
- Self Evaluation Maintenance Model
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What is the theory of group comparison?
Social Identity Approach
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Who developed the control theory of self regulation (self regulation theory)?
Carver and Scheier, 1981
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What is the self regulation theory?
We examine the self to assess whether we are meeting our personal goals
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What is a good comparison in science to the self regulation theory?
- The scientific method - start with a self schema, test it, evaluate it, if it passes we move on, but if it doesn't we retest it
- Test-Operate-Test-Exit
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Who developed the self discrepancy theory?
Higgins, 1987
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What is the self discrepancy theory?
People are motivated to ensure that their actual self matches their ideal and ought self
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Who developed the social comparison theory?
Festinger, 1954
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What is the social comparison theory?
We learn how to define the self by comparing ourselves to others through two different comparisons (upward and downward)
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What are the two different comparisons employed in the social comparison theory?
Upward and downward
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Who developed the self evaluation maintenance model?
Tesser, 1988
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What is the self-evaluation maintenance model?
When someone is more successful than us, it can have a negative effect on our self esteem, so we use self reflection and upward social comparisons to deal with it
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What are the four levels of upward social comparison?
- 1. exaggerate the ability of successful target
- 2. change the target of comparison
- 3. distance the self from successful target
- 4. devalue the dimension of comparison
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"They're just a genius so how can you compare them to normal people?" This is an example of what upward social comparison technique?
Exaggerating the ability of the successful target
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"Yeah, anyway, forget about her, I did better than Briony, Phillip, and Tasmin" This is an example of what upward social comparison technique?
Changing the target of comparison
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"She's a bit weird; we've got nothing in common at all! I think I'm going to avoid sitting near her in class..." This is an example of what type of upward social comparison?
Distancing the self from the successful target
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"She may get better grades than me, but I have a much better social life. Being popular is much more important!" This is an example of what type of upward social comparison?
Devaluing the dimension of comparison
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Tajfel and Turner developed what theory and in what year?
Social identity approach in 1979
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What are the two important aspects of self in the social identity approach?
- Personal identity
- Social identity
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Is the social identity approach applicable in every context, or is it context dependent?
Context dependent
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What is the evaluative component of the self concept?
Self esteem
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What is self esteem?
A person's subjective appraisal of him/herself as intrinsically positive or negative to some degree
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Who's definition of self esteem is used in the book?
Sedikides and Gregg, 2003
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Depending on the context we find ourselves in, what happens to our self esteem levels?
They vary from time to time
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Are differences in self esteem acute, chronic or both?
Both
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What are consequences of low self esteem?
- Disability to adequately regulate mood
- Narcissism
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Wood et al. (2003) found out what about people with low self esteem?
They dampen positive feelings
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Heimpel et al. (2002) found out what about people with low self esteem?
Following failure, the make fewer goals and plans to improve their mood
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What is narcissism?
- Extremely high self esteem
- Very unstable/fragile self esteem
- Reliant on validation from others
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What are positive characteristics of narcissism?
Initially likeable, extraverted, unlikely to suffer from depression and perform well in public
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What are negative characteristics of narcissism?
Crave attention, overconfident, lack empathy
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Who defined the positive and negative characteristics of narcissism?
Young and Pinksy in 2006
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What are the self motives?
- Self assessment
- Self verification
- Self enhancement
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Which self motivation is most important to us?
Self enhancement
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Who said self enhancement was the most important self motivation?
Sedikides, 1993
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Who developed the self affirmation theory?
Steele, 1975
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Mischel et al., 1975 developed what theory?
Self serving attribution bias
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What is the self affirmation theory?
We respond to threatened self esteem by publicly affirming positive aspects of the self
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What is the self serving attribution bias?
- Successes are attributed to internal characteristics
- Failures are attributed to external characteristics
- We have a memory for self enhancing information
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What are different strategies to enhance the social self?
- Deriving a positive self image from their group memberships
- Holding a positive collective identity in a group
- Actions of low status group members to enhance themselves
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What are strategies employed by low status group members to enhance their social self?
- Join a higher status group
- Social change strategies
- Social creativity strategies
- Dis-identification
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What are cultural differences in self and identity?
Individualistic vs Collectivist
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Are collectivist mindsets of the self still individual perceptions?
Yes, they are still individual perceptions dwelling in the mind
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What is biculturalism?
Individuals who simultaneously hold two cultural identities, their original and the identity of their host society
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What is the alternation model used in biculturalism?
- Individuals alter their cultural orientation depending on the situation (which culture they are immersed in at the time)
- Possible to have a sense of belonging in two cultures
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