-
Name the blood vessel that transports deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle of the heart into the lungs
Pulmonary trunk (or pulmonary arteries)
-
Name the blood vessel that transports oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium of the heart.
Pulmonary veins
-
What are 2 characteristics of pulmonary blood vessels (including small arteries and arterioles) that increase blood flow through the lungs and maintain a low resistance to blood flow?
- 1. Distensibility
- 2. Larger Diameter
-
The airways, from the nose to the terminal bronchioles are known as what?
Conducting Zone
-
What is the zone of the respiratory system where gas diffusion occurs?
Respiratory zone
-
What is the primary function of the nose?
Conditioning inhaled air
-
What are the areas of the airways that contain cilia?
- 1. Nose
- 2. Nasopharynx
- 3. Larynx
- 4. Trachea
- 5. Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Bronchi
- 6. Smaller bronchioles (not including terminal and respiratory bronchioles)
-
What is the cartilage that forms the anterior laryngeal wall?
Thyroid
-
What is the hyaline cartilage ring that is located at the end of the larynx?
Cricoid Cartilage
-
What is the soft tissue that connects the thyroid cartilage to the cricoid cartilage?
Cricothyroid Membrane (Ligament)
-
The Cricothryoid Membrane (ligament) is commonly used for an emergency airway in a procedure known as what?
Cricothyroidotomy or Tracheotomy
-
What is the are within the airways that is the most sensitive area for stimulating the cough reflex?
Carina
-
What are the airways that transport air into each lung?
Primary Bronchi
-
What are the airways that transport air into each lung lobe?
Lobar (Secondary Bronchi)
-
What are the airways that transport air into each lung segment?
Segmental (Tertiary Bronchi)
-
What are the largest airways within the respiratory zone?
Respiratory bronchioles
-
Cartilage is replaced by what tissue as the bronchioles get smaller?
Smooth Muscle
-
Terminal bronchioles do not contain cilia. Inhaled particles that reach the terminal bronchioles are removed by what?
Macrophages
-
Lungs are anatomically separated by what body compartment?
The Mediastinum
-
The tapered superior aspect of each lung is known as what?
The Apex
-
The concave inferior aspect of each lung is known as what?
The Base
-
The left lung has a depression on the medial surface; what is it called?
Cardiac Notch
-
Name the part of the pleural sac that lines each pleural cavity.
Parietal Pleura
-
Name the part of the pleural sac that covers each lung.
Visceral pleura
-
Pressure within the pleural cavity is normally _____________.
Subatmospheric
-
Does the pleural cavity contain air?
No
-
What purpose(s) does pleural fluid serve?
It allows the visceral pleura to slide against the parietal pleura without friction
-
Pleural fluid is derived from what type of body fluid?
Plasma
-
Pleural fluid is constantly being produced and drained from the pleural cavity. What structure(s) drain the pleural cavity?
Lymphatic Capillaries
-
Where does the pleural fluid drained by the lymphatic capillaries go after being drained?
It is returned to the blood circulation
-
What physical force normally keeps the visceral and parietal pleural in contact with each other?
Surface Tension
-
What is pleurisy?
Inflammation of the pleural membrane; has infectious and non-infectious etiologies; excess pleural fluid may or may not be associated with pleurisy
-
Name the condition where excess pleural fluid builds up in the pleural cavity.
Pleural Effusion
-
Name the fissure in the left lung that separates the superior from the inferior lobe.
Oblique Fissure
-
Where is the horizontal fissure located and what lobes does it separate?
It is located in the right lung and it separates the superior from the middle lobe
-
The anterior surface of each lung is mostly composed of which lobe?
Superior
-
How may segments are contained in each lung?
Ten (10)
-
Each lung segment is composed of smaller structures known as what?
Lobules
-
What are the structures contained in each lobule?
- 1. Pulmonary Arteriole
- 2. Pulmonary Venule
- 3. Lymph Vessel
- 4. A branch of the terminal bronchiole
-
Name the 2 structures within the lung where gas diffusion occurs.
- 1. Alveoli
- 2. Respiratory Bronchioles
-
Name the 2 cell types that comprise the alveolar wall.
Type I and Type II
-
Of the 2 cell types that comprise the alveolar wall, which cell type produces alveolar fluid?
Type II
-
Of the 2 cell types that comprise the alveolar wall, which cell type is most numerous?
Type I
-
What is a characteristic of a Type I cell of the alveolar wall?
It is a very flat cell
-
Alveolar fluid contains a substance that is composed of phospholipids and lipoproteins which is known as what?
Surfactant
-
What is the function of surfactant?
It decreases the surface tension of alveolar fluid (it does not totally eliminate surface tension)
-
What is another name for dust cells?
Alveolar Macrophages
-
What is the function of fibroblasts in alveolar walls?
They produce elastic fibers that help maintain the shape of the alveolar wall
-
Name the 4 layers of the respiratory membrane, in sequence, from the alveolar air space to the intravascular space.
- 1. Alveolar Wall
- 2. Alveolar Basement Membrane
- 3. Capillary Basement Membrane
- 4. Capillary Endothelium
-
What are 2 characteristics of the respiratory membrane that enhance gas diffusion?
- 1. It is thin
- 2. It has a large surface area
-
Which circulation provides most blood flow to the lungs?
Pulmonary
-
What characteristic of the pulmonary vascular bed keeps blood flow resistance and blood pressure low?
High compliance
-
What is external respiration?
Diffusion of O2 from alveolar air into alveolar capillary blood and diffusion of CO2 from alveolar capillary blood into the alveolar air
-
What is internal respiration?
Diffusion of O2 from systemic Capillary blood into tissue cells and diffusion of CO2 from tissue cells into systemic capillary blood
-
The bronchial circulation receives blood from what majore blood vessel?
The Aorta
-
Is the blood that the bronchial circulation receives from the Aorta oxygenated?
Yes
-
A human has how many bronchial arteries?
Usually 3
-
What are the lung structures that receive blood flow from the bronchial arteries?
Bronchi and connective tissue of the lungs (and to the esophagus from branching vessels)
-
Blood pressure and resistance to blood flow in the bronchial circulation is much higher than in the pulmonary circulation; why?
Bronchial arteries have lower compliance
-
Most blood transported to the lungs via the bronchial arteries is transported from the lungs via what vessel(s)?
Bronchial veins
-
A small amount of blood transported to the lungs via the bronchial arteries is transported from the lungs after mixing with blood in which pulmonary vessel(s)?
Pulmonary veins
-
What is the name of the blood flow that flows through the pulmonary vessels?
Venous Admixture
-
What are 2 reasons why pulmonary vascular resistance (PVR) must remain low?
- 1. So the right side of the heart doesn't have to work as hard to pump blood to the lungs
- 2. To insure blood flow and O2 delivery to tissues is optimal
-
What are the 2 anatomic factors that decrease blood flow resistance in the lungs?
- 1. Large number of vessels
- 2. Vessel length is short
-
What are the 2 events that occur that maintain blood flow resistance in the lungs when increased blood flow to the lungs increases blood pressure within the pulmonary arteries?
- 1. Recruitment of alveolar capillaries
- 2. Distention of alveolar capillaries
-
When is blood flow optimal during breathing?
Approximately midway between a full inhalation and full exhalation.
-
How does low alveolar oxygen (decreased alveolar pO2) affect pulmonary arterioles?
The constrict
-
How does constriction of pulmonary arterioles in when alveolar oxygen is low affect blood flow in the normally-functioning areas of the lung?
Blood flow to functioning alveoli increases
-
What is meant by the ventilation gradient increases from apex to base?
More atmospheric air moves into alveoli during inhalation as you progress from the lung apices to the bases
-
In what lung zone is blood flow greatest and why?
Zone 3; Gravitational pull
-
In what lung zone is blood flow minimal?
Zone 1
-
Define V/Q ratio
The relationship between ventilation and blood flow through lung zones
-
For each lung zone, list the V/Q ratio.
- 1. Zone 2: 1
- 2. Zone 1: >1
- 3. Zone 3: <1
-
In which zone is ventilation and perfusion most closely matched?
Zone 2
-
Can blood flow through alveolar capabillities occur in parts of the lung that are not receiving flow?
Yes (as long as there is no resistance to blood flow, it will continue because of the lower O2 in these areas, pulmonary arterioles do partially constrict). This is an example of V/Q mismatch
-
Why can positive pressure within the pulmonary interstitial spaces damaage alveolar walls?
Alveolar walls are very thin and the cells that compose the alveolar wall are very fragile
-
Explain why the normal pressure within the pulmonary interstitial spaces is negative.
Interstitial fluid is constantly being drained by the lymphatic capillaries. Pressure inside the lymphatic capillaries is negative.
-
What is excess fluid in pulmonary interstitial spaces known as?
Pulmonary Edema
-
What is the normal alveolar air pressure?
2 mmHg (when the individual is midway between an inhalation and an exhalation)
-
What is pulmonary ventillation?
Inhalation and exhalation of air from the atmosphere into the lungs without gas diffusion
-
Why is inhalation an active process?
Because it requires the use of muscles
-
What must the pressure be in the lungs be before atmospheric air can move in?
Lower than air
-
What must the pressure in the lungs be before inhaled air is exhaled?
Higher than atmospheric air
-
Define Boyle's Law.
Gas pressure in a closed container is inversely proportional to the container volume
-
What is the most important muscle of inhalation?
The Diaphragm
-
Contraction of which muscle of inhalation increases the anterior-posterior (AP) diamter of the thorax?
External intercostals
-
Contraction of which muscle of inhalation increases the vertical diameter of the thorax?
the diaphragm
-
Increasing the pressure gradient during forceful, strenuous inhalation has what effect on the rate of airflow into the lungs?
It increases the airflow rate
-
What is the intrapleural pressure (inside the pleural cavity) just prior to inhalation (in mmHg)?
approximately 756 mmHg
-
What are 2 factors that facilitate contact between the parietal and visceral pleura?
- 1. Surface tension of pleural fluid
- 2. Sub-atmospheric pressure within the pleural space
-
Describe how lung tissue is pulled outward during inhalation (it has to do with the visceral and parietal pleura).
Expansion of the thorax pulls the parietal pleura outward and because the visceral and parietal pleura are in contact with each other due to surface tension, the visceral pleura is pulled outward along with the parietal pleura
-
Air in the pleural cavity has what effect on intrapleural pressure?
it increases
-
Describe how a tension pneumothorax affects blood flow to and from the heart.
As more air enters the pleural space, the heart is more compressed. This interferes with blood flow in the great vessels and interferes with normal filling of the heart chambers with blood.
-
What are the 3 accessory muscles of inhalation?
- 1. Sternocleidomastoids
- 2. Scalenes
- 3. Pectoralis Minor
-
You are a PA examining a patient who is experiencing an asthma attack. You note the use of accessory muscles of inhalation. Should you be concerned and why or why not?
Yes. Use of accessory muscles of inhalation in this situation indicates that the patient is not ventilating the lungs well. In some cases, this indicates impending respiratory arrest.
-
Is quiet exhalation an active or passive process?
Passive
-
What are 2 factors that decrease lung volume during exhalation?
- 1. Elastic recoil of the chest wall and lung tissue
- 2. Alveolar fluid surface tension
-
Decreasing lung volume during exhalation has what effect on alveolar air pressure?
It increases
-
What are 2 muscles (or muscle groups) that are used during forceful exhalation?
- 1. Abdominals
- 2. Internal intercostals
-
What are the 3 major factors affecting airflow rate and effort required for breathing?
- 1. Alveolar fluid surface tension
- 2. Lung compliance
- 3. Airway resistance
-
Why do alveoli assum the smallest diameter during exhalation?
Alveolar fluid surface tension
-
What are 2 factors that contribute to compliance of healthy lungs?
- 1. Elasticity of lung tissue
- 2. Surfactant in alveolar fluid
-
What effect does surfactant in alveolar fluid have on alveolar surface tension?
It decreases
-
What are 2 factors that affect the rate of airflow into the lungs?
- 1. Difference in partial pressure of atmospheric air and alveolar air
- 2. Airway resistance to airflow
-
What is the formula for Ohm's law?
Q = Pressure gradient / R or Flow = pressure difference / airway
-
Factors affecting airway resistance are explained by what law of physics?
Poiseulle's Law
-
Airway resistance is directly proportional to what?
Airway length
-
Airway resistance is inversely proportional to what?
the radius (diameter) of the airway
-
How does acetylcholine affect airway resistance to airflow?
It increases
-
What is the sympathetic neurotransmitter substance that causes bronchodilation?
Norepinephrine
-
A patient's ventilatory function is assessed by what diagnostic modality?
Spirometry
-
What is measured during a spirometry?
The patient's measured lung volumes are compared to predicted values
-
What are 3 characteristics that are used to create predicted lung volumes for a particular patient?
-
What is the normal ventilatory (respiratory) rate?
12-20 breaths per minute
-
Define tidal volume (VT).
The difference between end-respiratory and end-expiratory volumes during quiet breathing (at rest)
-
Approximately ho much of the tidal volume actually reaches the respiratory zone?
70%
-
Define anatomic dead space
the conducting zone of the airways where gas diffusion does not occur
-
What is air contained in unperfused alveoli known as?
Alveolar dead space air
-
Define physiologic dead space
The sum of anatomic and alveolar dead space
-
What is the formula for alveolar ventilation rate?
Tidal Volume (minus anatomic dead space of 30%) x Respiratory rate
-
Define Residual Volume (RV).
The volume of air remaining in the lungs after a maximal exhalation
-
How is residual volume measured by spriometry?
It cannot be measured by spirometry
-
Define expiratory reserve volume (ERV).
Extra air that can be maximally exhaled minus the tidal volume
-
What effect does increased airway resistance (COPD, asthma) have on FEV1?
It decreases
-
What is the lung volume measurement that is sometimes regarded as the most sensitive test of small airway narrowing?
FEF 25-75%
-
Total lung capacity (TLC) is the sum of what 4 lung volumes?
- 1. Tidal volume
- 2. Residual volume
- 3. Expiratory reserve volume
- 4. Inspiratory reserve volume
-
What is the average adult total lung capacity (TLC)?
6 liters
-
Define functional residual capacity (FRC)
The sum of residual volume + Expiratory reserve volume
-
Define Inspiratory Capacity (IC).
The sum of tidal volume + inspiratory reserve volume
-
What is the formula for minute volume?
Tidal volume X ventilations/minute
-
Define Dalton's Law
Each gas in a mixture of gases exerts its own pressure independent of the other gases
-
Define partial pressure as it relates to a gas.
The pressure of one gas in a mixture of gases
-
Explain how O2 and CO2 diffuse accros the respiratory membrane and across the walls of systemic capillaries
Via passive diffusion
-
What change in the pressure gradient must occur to increase the rate of gas diffusion?
the pressure gradient must increase
-
According to Henry's Law, what 2 factors affect the quantity of gas dissolved in liquid?
- 1. Partial pressure of the gas
- 2. Solubility of the gas
-
Which gas is more soluble in plasma, O2 or CO2?
CO2
-
Which gas is less soluble in plasma, N2 or O2?
N2
-
Name the medical therapy that is physiologic application of Henry's law.
Hyperbaric Oxygenation
-
What is the pO2 in venous (deoxygenated) blood in an individual at rest?
40 mmHg
-
How does the pO2 value change in an individual who is exercising or who has recently exercised?
It decreases
-
What is the pCO2 in venous (deoxygenated) blood in an individual at rest?
45 mmHg
-
What is the pCO2 in tissue interstitial fluid in an individual at rest?
45 mmHg
-
How does pCO2 in tissue interstitial fluid values change in an individual who is exercising or has recently exercised?
It incrases
-
What is the approximate time it takes for blood to flow through alveolar capillaries?
0.8 seconds
-
What are 2 characteristics of alveolar capillary beds that insure that blood doesn't flow too fast through alveolar capillaries?
- 1. There are large numbers of them
- 2. They distend when blood flow increases
-
When an individual exercises, blood flow through alveolar capillaries increases. What is the fastest that blood normally flows through alveolar capillaries in this situation (in seconds)?
0.3 seconds
-
How does ephysema affect the surface area available for gas diffusion?
It decreases
-
What effect does exercise have on the pO2 of an emphysema patient's oxygenated (arterial) blood?
It decreases
-
Does an epmhysema patient's tissue cells receive adequate O2?
No
-
Does an epmhysema patient have to alter the rate and deapth of his breathing?
Yes. They will involuntarily breath deeper and faster in an attempt to increase O2 delivery to tissues during exercise
-
What is the pO2 in tissue cells?
40 mmHg
-
What is the pCO2 in tissue cells?
45 mmHg
-
Explain why CO2 diffuses into the systemic capillaries and why O2 diffuses into tissue cells
The partial pressure of O2 is higher in the systemic capillaries so it diffuses into tissue cells where the PO2 is lower. The same is occurring for CO2 in the opposite direction
-
What is the approximate O2 saturation of venous blood returning to the lungs in an individual at rest?
75%
-
What are the 4 factors affecting gas diffusion in the lungs (Fick's law)?
- 1. Respiratory membrane surface area
- 2. Diffusion distance
- 3. Differences in partial pressure of O2 and CO2
- 4. Diffusivity of O2 and CO2
-
How does an increased partial pressure gradient affect gas diffusion?
It increases
-
How does left upper lobe pneumonia affect the total surface area available for gas diffusion in a lung that has increased partial pressure gradient?
It decreases
-
What effect does an increased diffusion distance have on gas diffusion in the lungs?
It decreases
-
How many iron atoms are contained in a hemoglobin molecule?
4
-
Define oxyhemoglobin
O2 bound to Hemoglobin
-
Define carboxyhemoglobin
CO2 bound to Hemoglobin
-
Define reduced hemoglobin
Hemoglobin that doesn't have any O2 or CO2 molecules bound to it
-
How much O2 (in %) is normally transported to the tissues inside of RBCs?
98.5%
-
How much O2 (in %) is normally transported to tissues in the plasma?
1.5%
-
Each hemoglobin molecule can transport how many O2 molecules?
4
-
What is the most important factor that influences how much O2 is bound to hemoglobin?
The pO2 of the surrounding environment
-
What is the hemoglobin (in %) if two O2 molecules are bound to 2 iron atoms?
50%
-
What is SpO2?
Percent (%) of O2 saturation of hemoglobin in systemic capillaries
-
What is the approximate O2 saturation of arterial blood if the pO2 in alveolar air is between 60 and 100 mmHg?
>90%
-
When the O2-hemoglobin bond is tight, does the hemoglobin have a high or low affinity for O2?
HIGH
-
What are 4 factors that influence how tightly (or loosely) O2 binds to hemoglobin?
- 1. Acidity (pH)
- 2. Temperature
- 3. Bisphosphoglycerate level
- 4. pCO2
-
How does a low pH affet hemoglobin affinity for O2?
It decreases
-
Describe the Bohr Effect
The effect of pH on Hemoglobin affinity for O2
-
How does a high body temperature affect hemoglobin affinity for O2?
It decreases it
-
pCO2 has the same effect on hemoglobin affinity for O2 as what other factor?
pH
-
What is 2,3 bisphosphoglycerate (BPG)?
A substance formed by RBCs when they utilize glucose for ATP production
-
How does incresed BPG formation affect hemoglobin affinity for O2?
It decreases
-
Is there a direct relationship between pO2 and % of hemoglobin saturation?
No... (See the O2-HGB Dissociation Curve)
-
Most CO2 transported to the lungs from the tissues is transported in what way?
As HCO3- in plasma
-
What are 2 ways that CO2 is transported in the blood?
- 1. Dissolved in plasma as CO2
- 2. As Carbaminohemoglobin
-
Explain the chloride shift
As CO2 diffuses into RBCs in tissue capillaries, it is converted to HCO3-. As the HCO3- concentration inside the RBC increases, some of the HCO3- diffuses out of the RBCs into the plasma. Chloride in plasma diffuses into RBCs to maintain electrical neutrality between the ICF and Plasma
-
Explain the Haldane effect in alveolar capillaries
More O2 is loaded onto Hemoglobin as (or after) CO2 is unloaded
-
Explain Haldane effect in tissue capillaries.
More CO2 is loaded onto hemoglobin as (or after) O2 is unloaded
-
Tissue O2 demand in a healthy adult during exercise can increase by how much?
15-20 fold
-
Identify the specific regin of the respiratory center that controls the basic rhythm of ventilation.
The inspiratory zone of the medullary rhythmicity area
-
When is the expirator zone activated?
Only during forceful breathing
-
The inspiratory zone transmits nerve impulses to what structures?
the diaphragm and external intercostals
-
Which region of the respiratory center transmits inhibitory impulses to the inspiratory zone before the lungs become too full of air?
Pneumotaxic area
-
Which region of the respiratory center transmits impulses to the respiratory zone causing deeper and longer inhalations?
Apneustic area
-
Explain why we cannot voluntarily stop breathing indefinitely
The longer we hold our breath, the pCO2 in plasma increases as well. The increasing pCO2 stimulates the respiratory center causing us to inhale (even if we are unconscious)
-
Where are central chemoreceptors located?
In the medulla oblongata (the CNS)
-
Central chemoreceptors monitor the chemical content of what type of body fluid?
Cerebral Spinal Fluid (CSF)
-
Peripheral chemoreceptors monitor the chemical content of what body fluid?
blood (plasma)
-
Name the 2 types of peripheral chemoreceptors
- 1. Aortic bodies
- 2. Carotid bodies
-
Chemoreceptors send nerve impulses to which region of the respiratory center?
Inspiratory zone
-
Define hypercapnia.
Arterial blood pCO2 that is higher than the normal range
-
What drives respiration (breathing) in a healthy person?
Arterial blood pCO2
-
At what level does the pO2 need to be to allow peripheral chemoreceptors to function normally in the blood?
50 mmHg
-
In sever hypoxia, pCO2 increases dramatically while pO2 decreases dramtically. Which one of these partial pressures has the MOST influence on an individual's respiratory drive in this state?
pO2
-
Explain the positive feedback cycle in severe hypoxia that results in cessation of breathing (if it is not rapidly treated).
Once the pO2 decreases below 50 mmHg, living tissue of the respiratory center does not receive adequate oxygenation. Respiratory center function gradually decreases as the pO2 decreases more. Eventually, the individual stops breathing
-
What are 2 conditions that cause Cheyne-Stokes breathing?
- 1. Damage to the respiratory center (from a stroke or trauma)
- 2. Response to sever respiratory acidosis (as in cardiac arrest)
-
Define hypocapnia.
Arterial blood pCO2 that is lower than the normal range
-
Define hypoxia
Tissue O2 deficiency
-
If tissues are hypoxic, where is there NOT enough O2 being transported?
Arterial blood
-
Carbon monoxide poisoning results in which type of hypoxia?
Anemic
-
Define histotoxic hypoxia
Tissues cannot utilize O2 that is delivered (there is some intrinsic abnormality within the tissue)
-
Define Hypoxic hypoxia
Low arterial blood pO2
-
Reduced blood flow to a tissue or organ results in what type of hypoxia?
Ischemic
-
Describe Hering-Breuer reflex
If too much air enters the lungs, bronchial walls stretch; stretch receptors in the bronchial walls send nerve impulses to the inspiratory zone and apneustic areas inhibiting their function. Exhalation occurs before there is any lung damage due to overfilling
-
What are the 2 major mechanisms for H+ removal from body fluids?
- 1. CO2 exhalation
- 2. H+ excretion in urine
-
What is the major effect of acidosis on the body?
CNS depression
-
A patient complains of chest tightness and "tingling" in her fingers and lips. Is she most likely experiencing acidosis or alkalosis?
Alkalosis. Alkalosis overexcites the CNS and peripheral nerves
-
What is meant by "complete compensation" of an acid-base imbalance?
The compensatory mechanism (or mechanisms) is (are) able to adjust the pH into the normal range
-
What is meant by "partial compenstation" of an acid-base imbalance?
The compensatory mechanism (or mechanisms) is (are) able to adjust the more pH toward the normal range, but the pH is stilll above or below the normal range.
-
What is the compensatory response to respiratory alkalosis?
Decreased H+ secretion into the renal filtrate and decreased HCO3- absorption from the filtrate
-
What is a common cause of respiratory alkalosis?
Emotional hyperventilation
-
What is the compensatory response to metabolic acidosis?
Increased rate and depth of breathing
-
In uncompenstated respiratory acidosis or alkalosis, other than the pH, what arterial blood gas value is abnormal?
pCO2
-
In uncompensated metabolic acidosis or alkalosis, other than the pH, what arterial blood gas value is abnormal?
HCO3-
-
Interpret the following lab results:
pH: 7.55
pO2: 93 mmHg
pCO2: 22 mmHg
HCO3-: 27 mEq/L
Uncompensated Respiratory Alkalosis
-
Interpret the following lab results:
pH: 7.02
pO2: 58 mmHg
pCO2: 78 mmHg
HCO3-: 22 mEq/L
Uncompensated Respiratory Acidosis
-
Interpret the following lab results:
pH: 6.98
pO2: 115 mmHg
pCO2: 43 mmHg
HCO3-: 12 mEq/L
Uncompensated metabolic acidosis
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