Carbohydrates are _____ compouds that have a carbonyl group and several to many ____ groups
Organic; hydroxyl
What is the name of a simple sugar?
monosaccharide
What is the name of a complex sugar?
polysaccharide
How are different types of monosaccharides distinguished?
(1) the location of their carbonyl groups
(2) number of carbon atoms they have
(3) orientation of their hydroxyl groups in the linear chain or ring form
Monosaccharides are _________ that polymerize via _______
monomers ; condensation reaction
How are monosaccharides in polysaccharides joined?
glycosidic linkages
The most common polysaccharide in organisms today are
startch , glycogen, cellulose, and chitin
Peptidoglycen is an abundent polysaccharide with _______ chains of amino acids
short
Carbohydrates have diverse functions in ____
Cells
Cellulose, chitin, and peptidoglycan function in
Support
The __________ on cell - surface gylcoproteins can function as specific signposts or ID tags
oligosaccharides
The plasma membran
seperates life from nonlife
Fats are composed of three ____ ____ that are linked to a three - carbon molecule called _______
Fatty acids ; glycerol
Molecules that contain only carbon and hydrogen
Hydrocarbons
Lipids are characterized by their
Solubility
Glycerol and fatty - acid molecules are linked by
ester linkage
_______ consists of a glycerol that is linked to a phosphate group and to either two chains of isoprene or two fatty acids
Phospholipids
Compounds that contain by hydrophobic and hydrophillic elements
amphipathic
Instead of disolving in water, phosholipids form one of two types of structures which are
Micelles -create wheels
Lipid Bilayers - two sheets of phospholipid align
Phospholipids are more stable as a
Group
Permeability
the tendency to allow a given substance to pass across it
Hydrocarbon chains without double bonds are said to be ___________. Hydrocarbon chains with double bonds are said to be ___________.
Saturated ; Unsaturated
Bond saturation and hydrocarbon chain length change ______ and ______.
Membrane fluidity, permeability
Glycogen
A polymer of glucose, the primary energy storage molecule in animals
Liquid triacylglycerols
Oils
Which is more permeable?
- membrane made out of lipids with short, kinked, unsaturated fatty - acid tails
- bilayers made of lipids with long, straight, saturated fatty - acid tails
bilayers made of lipids with long, straight, saturated fatty - acid tails
T/F - adding cholesterol to liposomes dramatically reduces the permeability of the lipid bilayer
True
What determines how quickly molecules move within and across membranes?
Temperature and the strucutre of hydrocarbon tails
Entropy is the measure of..
the randomness or disorder in a system
in a closed system, entropy always decreases (T/F)
False, it always increases
Solutes
the dissolved molecules and ions
Osmosis
the moevement of water
Hypertonic
Outside solution is hypertonic to the inside (more 'salt' on outside, water exits cell)
Hypotonic
Outside solution is hypotonic to inside (water enters cell, causes it to burst)
Isotonic
isotonic solution (no change)
Proteins that are amphipathic can be insterted into lipid bilayers (T/F)
True
Which do we use today?
* Fluid - Mosaic Model
* Sandwich Model
Fluid - Mosaic
What is the difference between integral membrane protein and peripheral membrane proteins?
Integral Membrane Protein - face interior and exterior surfaces
Peripheral Membrane Protein - found only on one side of the membrane
What are the three classes of transport proteins that affect membrane permeability?
Channels, transporters, and pumps
The most prominent structure inside a bacterial cell is the
chromosome
Chromsomes contain
DNA
Bacterial chromosomes are found in the localized area of the cell called that
nucleoid
Plasmids
contain genes but are independent from the main chromosome
Ribosomes contain
RNA and proteins
Cytoskeleton
New discovery; protein filaments that help maintain cell shape
When water enters the cell via osmosis and makes the cell's volume expand, the pressure is resisted by
the cell wall
Lipids the contain carbohydrate groups
glycolipids
Eukaryotic cells are much ______ than bacteria and archaea
larger
What are two key advantages to compartmentalization in eukaryotic cells
*incompatible chemical reactions can be seperated
*chemical reactions become more efficient
Nucleus
Holds genetic informaiton, assembles ribosome subunits, and give structural support
-enclosed by a double memebrane (nuclear envelope)
-the nuclear lamina stiffens the structure and maintains shape
Ribosomes
the site of protein synthesis
Rough ER
protein synthesis and processing
-knobys on ER are ribosomes
Smooth ER
Contains enzymes that catalyze reactions involving lipids
Golgi Apparatus
products of the rough ER pass through here, consist of flattened sacs called cisternae
Peroxisomes
centers for oxidation reactions
Lysosomes
in animal cells;; digestive centers, catalyze hydrolysis reactions
Autophagy
damaged cells are digested by lysosome and recycled into the cytosol
Phagocytosis
plasma membrane engulfs small cell and releases small molecules into cytosol
Vacuoles
Store water
Mitochondria
Produces ATP
Chloroplast
producation of ATP and sugars via photosynthesis
Cell Wall
in fungi, algae and plants ;; provides support and protection
Cytoskeleton
structural support, movement of material and in some species, the whole cell
Plasma Membrane
maintains intracellular environment
The Secretory Pathway
(1) Ribosome deposits Nascent protein in ER
(2) Protein exits Rough ER
(3)Proteing enters Golgi cis face for processing
(4) Protein exits Golgi trans face
Centrioles are composed of...
microtubules
What is Classic Organization
9+2
What are the cytoskeleton's three main components
(1) Vacuoles
(2) Chloroplast
(3) Cell Walls
Cytokinesis
cell division in animal cells
Cytoplasmic Streaming
the directed flow of cytosol and organelles around plant cells;; common in large cells
Cell Crawling
groups of actin filaments grow and create bulges in the plasma membrane that extend and move the cell
How are cells connected?`
extracellular matrix
List two facts about collagen
1) Most abundent molecule
2) only bonded molecule in Animal Kingdom
What are the three types of junctions/briefly describe?
Tight junction, anchoring junction and communication junction
Catabolic pathways
Cell Respiration --> (aerobic)
Fermentation --> (anaerobic)
What do all organisms use to extract energy from organic molecules
Cellular respiration
What does ATP consist of
3 phosphate groups, ribose and adenine
when is energy released from ATP
when it is hydrolyzed
what are the two mechanisms for synthesis
(1) Substrate level - phosphorylation { transfer phosphate directly to ADP (glycolysis) }
(2) Oxidative Phosporylation { ATP synthase uses energy from proton gradient (electron transport and chemiosmosis) }
Glycolysis
inpute - 1 glucose, 2 ATP, 2 NaD +
energy yield - 2 NADH, 4 ATP
net yield - 2 pyruvate (3C ; substrate), 2 NADH (electron carriers) , 2 ATP
Citric Acid Cycle
- occurs in the mitocondrial matrix
** Acetyl CoA + Oxaloacetate --> citrate
*** Citrate rearranges and decarboxylizes
**** Regeneration of oxaloacetate occurs
Electron Transport Chain & Chemiosmosis
-occurs in the cristae membrane
- the final electron acceptor is oxygen which keeps the chain moving (escalator)
the fate of pyruvate depends on what?
O2 availability
Anaerobic Respiration
Methanogens - CO2 is reduced to CH (methane)
Sulfur Bacterial - inorganic sulfacte (SO4) is reduced to hydrogen sulfate (H2S)
Fermentation
Uses organic molecules as final electron acceptors
Glycolysis 'shunts' --> fermentation in absence of O2
Aerobic Respiration
C6H12O6 +6O2 --> 6CO2 +6H2O + energy
Cellular Energy Harvest
#Dozens of Redox Reactions
#Numerous electron acceptors
#High - Energy electrons enter reactions and loose muc of their energy
Pyruvate Oxidation
-occurs in the mitochondria of eukaryotes
- occurs in the plasma membrane of prokaryotes
- For each pyruvate molecule (X2) ;;
* input - 1 pyruvate (3C) , 1 Co - enzyme A (CoA)
* net yield - 1 CO2, 1 NADH, 1 Acetyl - CoA (substrate for citric acid cycle)
Citric Acid Cycle
For each Acetly CoA
- yield ;; 2 CO2, 3NAD+ reduced to 3 NADH, 1 FAD reduced to FADH2, 1 ATP
One Glucose molecule oxidized to
6 CO2 , 4 ATP, 10 NADH, 2 FADH2
*** 10 NADH and 2 FADH2 proceed to the electron transport chain ***
Electron Transport Chain
- Embeded in IMM
Chemiosmosis
- proton gradient in the intermembrane space
- diffuse down the gradient
- protons re-enter the matrix through ATP synthase
Energy yield of respiration
~ 29 ATP per glucose for Eukaryotes
What are the position difference of Alpha - Glucose and Beta - Glucose?
