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Carbohydrates are _____ compouds that have a carbonyl group and several to many ____ groups
Organic; hydroxyl
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What is the name of a simple sugar?
monosaccharide
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What is the name of a complex sugar?
polysaccharide
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How are different types of monosaccharides distinguished?
- (1) the location of their carbonyl groups
- (2) number of carbon atoms they have
- (3) orientation of their hydroxyl groups in the linear chain or ring form
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Monosaccharides are _________ that polymerize via _______
monomers ; condensation reaction
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How are monosaccharides in polysaccharides joined?
glycosidic linkages
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The most common polysaccharide in organisms today are
startch , glycogen, cellulose, and chitin
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Peptidoglycen is an abundent polysaccharide with _______ chains of amino acids
short
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Carbohydrates have diverse functions in ____
Cells
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Cellulose, chitin, and peptidoglycan function in
Support
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The __________ on cell - surface gylcoproteins can function as specific signposts or ID tags
oligosaccharides
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The plasma membran
seperates life from nonlife
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Fats are composed of three ____ ____ that are linked to a three - carbon molecule called _______
Fatty acids ; glycerol
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Molecules that contain only carbon and hydrogen
Hydrocarbons
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Lipids are characterized by their
Solubility
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Glycerol and fatty - acid molecules are linked by
ester linkage
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_______ consists of a glycerol that is linked to a phosphate group and to either two chains of isoprene or two fatty acids
Phospholipids
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Compounds that contain by hydrophobic and hydrophillic elements
amphipathic
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Instead of disolving in water, phosholipids form one of two types of structures which are
- Micelles -create wheels
- Lipid Bilayers - two sheets of phospholipid align
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Phospholipids are more stable as a
Group
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Permeability
the tendency to allow a given substance to pass across it
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Hydrocarbon chains without double bonds are said to be ___________. Hydrocarbon chains with double bonds are said to be ___________.
Saturated ; Unsaturated
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Bond saturation and hydrocarbon chain length change ______ and ______.
Membrane fluidity, permeability
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Glycogen
A polymer of glucose, the primary energy storage molecule in animals
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Liquid triacylglycerols
Oils
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Which is more permeable?
- membrane made out of lipids with short, kinked, unsaturated fatty - acid tails
- bilayers made of lipids with long, straight, saturated fatty - acid tails
bilayers made of lipids with long, straight, saturated fatty - acid tails
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T/F - adding cholesterol to liposomes dramatically reduces the permeability of the lipid bilayer
True
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What determines how quickly molecules move within and across membranes?
Temperature and the strucutre of hydrocarbon tails
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Entropy is the measure of..
the randomness or disorder in a system
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in a closed system, entropy always decreases (T/F)
False, it always increases
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Solutes
the dissolved molecules and ions
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Osmosis
the moevement of water
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Hypertonic
Outside solution is hypertonic to the inside (more 'salt' on outside, water exits cell)
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Hypotonic
Outside solution is hypotonic to inside (water enters cell, causes it to burst)
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Isotonic
isotonic solution (no change)
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Proteins that are amphipathic can be insterted into lipid bilayers (T/F)
True
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Which do we use today?
* Fluid - Mosaic Model
* Sandwich Model
Fluid - Mosaic
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What is the difference between integral membrane protein and peripheral membrane proteins?
- Integral Membrane Protein - face interior and exterior surfaces
- Peripheral Membrane Protein - found only on one side of the membrane
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What are the three classes of transport proteins that affect membrane permeability?
Channels, transporters, and pumps
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The most prominent structure inside a bacterial cell is the
chromosome
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Bacterial chromosomes are found in the localized area of the cell called that
nucleoid
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Plasmids
contain genes but are independent from the main chromosome
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Ribosomes contain
RNA and proteins
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Cytoskeleton
New discovery; protein filaments that help maintain cell shape
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When water enters the cell via osmosis and makes the cell's volume expand, the pressure is resisted by
the cell wall
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Lipids the contain carbohydrate groups
glycolipids
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Eukaryotic cells are much ______ than bacteria and archaea
larger
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What are two key advantages to compartmentalization in eukaryotic cells
- *incompatible chemical reactions can be seperated
- *chemical reactions become more efficient
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Nucleus
- Holds genetic informaiton, assembles ribosome subunits, and give structural support
- -enclosed by a double memebrane (nuclear envelope)
- -the nuclear lamina stiffens the structure and maintains shape
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Ribosomes
the site of protein synthesis
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Rough ER
- protein synthesis and processing
- -knobys on ER are ribosomes
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Smooth ER
Contains enzymes that catalyze reactions involving lipids
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Golgi Apparatus
products of the rough ER pass through here, consist of flattened sacs called cisternae
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Peroxisomes
centers for oxidation reactions
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Lysosomes
in animal cells;; digestive centers, catalyze hydrolysis reactions
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Autophagy
damaged cells are digested by lysosome and recycled into the cytosol
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Phagocytosis
plasma membrane engulfs small cell and releases small molecules into cytosol
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Mitochondria
Produces ATP
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Chloroplast
producation of ATP and sugars via photosynthesis
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Cell Wall
in fungi, algae and plants ;; provides support and protection
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Cytoskeleton
structural support, movement of material and in some species, the whole cell
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Plasma Membrane
maintains intracellular environment
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The Secretory Pathway
- (1) Ribosome deposits Nascent protein in ER
- (2) Protein exits Rough ER
- (3)Proteing enters Golgi cis face for processing
- (4) Protein exits Golgi trans face
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Centrioles are composed of...
microtubules
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What is Classic Organization
9+2
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What are the cytoskeleton's three main components
- (1) Vacuoles
- (2) Chloroplast
- (3) Cell Walls
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Cytokinesis
cell division in animal cells
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Cytoplasmic Streaming
the directed flow of cytosol and organelles around plant cells;; common in large cells
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Cell Crawling
groups of actin filaments grow and create bulges in the plasma membrane that extend and move the cell
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How are cells connected?`
extracellular matrix
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List two facts about collagen
- 1) Most abundent molecule
- 2) only bonded molecule in Animal Kingdom
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What are the three types of junctions/briefly describe?
Tight junction, anchoring junction and communication junction
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Catabolic pathways
- Cell Respiration --> (aerobic)
- Fermentation --> (anaerobic)
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What do all organisms use to extract energy from organic molecules
Cellular respiration
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What does ATP consist of
3 phosphate groups, ribose and adenine
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when is energy released from ATP
when it is hydrolyzed
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what are the two mechanisms for synthesis
- (1) Substrate level - phosphorylation { transfer phosphate directly to ADP (glycolysis) }
- (2) Oxidative Phosporylation { ATP synthase uses energy from proton gradient (electron transport and chemiosmosis) }
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Glycolysis
- inpute - 1 glucose, 2 ATP, 2 NaD +
- energy yield - 2 NADH, 4 ATP
- net yield - 2 pyruvate (3C ; substrate), 2 NADH (electron carriers) , 2 ATP
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Citric Acid Cycle
- - occurs in the mitocondrial matrix
- ** Acetyl CoA + Oxaloacetate --> citrate
- *** Citrate rearranges and decarboxylizes
- **** Regeneration of oxaloacetate occurs
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Electron Transport Chain & Chemiosmosis
- -occurs in the cristae membrane
- - the final electron acceptor is oxygen which keeps the chain moving (escalator)
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the fate of pyruvate depends on what?
O2 availability
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Anaerobic Respiration
- Methanogens - CO2 is reduced to CH (methane)
- Sulfur Bacterial - inorganic sulfacte (SO4) is reduced to hydrogen sulfate (H2S)
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Fermentation
- Uses organic molecules as final electron acceptors
- Glycolysis 'shunts' --> fermentation in absence of O2
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Aerobic Respiration
C6H12O6 +6O2 --> 6CO2 +6H2O + energy
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Cellular Energy Harvest
- #Dozens of Redox Reactions
- #Numerous electron acceptors
- #High - Energy electrons enter reactions and loose muc of their energy
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Pyruvate Oxidation
- -occurs in the mitochondria of eukaryotes
- - occurs in the plasma membrane of prokaryotes
- - For each pyruvate molecule (X2) ;;
- * input - 1 pyruvate (3C) , 1 Co - enzyme A (CoA)
- * net yield - 1 CO2, 1 NADH, 1 Acetyl - CoA (substrate for citric acid cycle)
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Citric Acid Cycle
- For each Acetly CoA
- - yield ;; 2 CO2, 3NAD+ reduced to 3 NADH, 1 FAD reduced to FADH2, 1 ATP
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One Glucose molecule oxidized to
6 CO2 , 4 ATP, 10 NADH, 2 FADH2
*** 10 NADH and 2 FADH2 proceed to the electron transport chain ***
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Electron Transport Chain
- Embeded in IMM
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Chemiosmosis
- - proton gradient in the intermembrane space
- - diffuse down the gradient
- - protons re-enter the matrix through ATP synthase
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Energy yield of respiration
~ 29 ATP per glucose for Eukaryotes
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What are the position difference of Alpha - Glucose and Beta - Glucose?
- Alpha - above ring
- Beta - below ring
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Step of sodium - potasium pump
(1) unbound protein (2) sodium binding (3) shap change (4) release (5) unbound protein (6) potasssium binding (7) shape change (8) release
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