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1. Reasoning
evidence leads to conclusion
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2. Rationalization
you already have a conclusion, so you look for evidence to support it with selective attention.
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3. First principle of critical thinking
Be open minded and skeptic.
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4. Importance of a stable, yet flexible memory system
Stable=To remember, Flexible=To learn
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5. Advantages of a constructive memory system
It requires reconstructing information instead of encoding a copy. Remembering interpreted information.
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6. Short-term memory vs. long-term memory
ST= Can repeat info right after receiving it. LT= Encoded deeper
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7. Necessary truth
Something that cannot be false
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8. Cognitive Scheme
A network of biases. our brains think in categories and we tend to lump things into those categories
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9. New knowledge and memory
??
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10. Problems with relying on common sense
??
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11. Fallacy of appeal to ignorance
An argument based on a lack of evidence. (Some people were accused of being communists in court, but they had no proof of being communists or NOT being communists)
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12. Cognitive opinion
Opinion based on careful examination of evidence
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13. Affective opinion
Opinion based on emotions
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14. Reasonable doubt
When you don't have enough evidence to prove something is true.
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15. Four types of evidence used to evaluate a claim
Experimental, Statistical, Anecdotal (based on personal experience- varies from person to person), Testimonial (someone else's experience)
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16. Encoding and decoding
Encoding= storing information to recall in short or long term memory. Decoding= analyzing and interpreting information.
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17. Relationship between sensation, perception, and memory
Sensation= experiencing our senses (touch, taste, smell, sight). Perception= how we interpret the sensations and make sense of the environment. We encode these experiences into memory.
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18. Memory and consciousness
- Short term memory best represents consciousness.
- Two types of memory: Declarative=conscious memory, non declarative= unconscious
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19. Reasons for egocentrism and ethnocentrism
Ego.= Your belief is the most important. Ethno.= Your group's belief is most important.
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20. Perceptual filters
Our senses are selective and biases affect the way we interpret reality.
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21. Selective attention and critical thinking
Selective attention is not conductive to critical thinking because it is paying attention to things that fit in our schemas.
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22. Subjective relativism
Points of view have no absolute truth, just a subjective value because everyone perceives things differently.
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23. Declarative memory vs. non-declarative memory
Dec= Episodic. Events we participated in memory (high school graduation, the time you broke your arm when you were 9) Non-dec= Semantic. Math, vocab, how to tie your shoelaces.
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24. Types of information we are most likely to remember
Survival, emotional, something interesting or something you understand.
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25. Difference between opinion and reasoned judgment
Opinion= doesn't need evidence. Reasoned jud= the more evidence the better.
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26. Self-fulfilling prophecy
expectations of an event that directly or indirectly cause it to be true. (you expect a subject to react a certain way to the medication, the way you treat them may give them a placebo effect and they believe they are experiencing the side effects)
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27. Law of large numbers
As your number of samples increases, the average of the samples is more likely to represent the population.
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28. Theory vs. hypothesis
theory= explains an aspect of the natural world with evidence. hypothesis= an educated, testable guess.
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29. Four things that scientific inquiry permits
Describe, explain, predict, control
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30. Four criteria for rating the adequacy of a hypothesis
Testability, Predictive power (Scope)- how much it proves, Parsimony (Simplicity. See 33)- Requires few assumptions, Conservativism (See 34)
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31. Fallacy of appeal to false authority
When a person is not an expert in that field of testimony.
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32. Four steps of evaluating a supernatural claim
State claim, examine evidence, consider alternative hypothesis, rate each hypothesis.
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33. Principle of parsimony
the more simplistic the idea is- the less assumptions that can be proved wrong- the more likely it is to be true.
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34. Principle of conservatism
the idea is better if it is consistent with what we already know.
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35. Purpose of correlation research
Correlation research= comparing 2 variables so we can learn how the 2 variables are related. The purpose is= we can make a prediction on one variable based on what we know about the other.
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36. Limits of correlation research
correlation does not equal causation. Through correlation research we can determine there is a relationship between academic success and self esteem, but it can't show if it increases or decreases self esteem. Other variables might play a role too.
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37. Positive correlation and negative correlation
Pos= Both variables increase or decrease at the same time (+1.00 is strong pos correlation) Neg= As one variable increases the other decreases (-1.00 is strong neg correlation)
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38. Difference between scientific method and other forms of knowledge
Scientific method is about investigating nature to produce reliable knowledge.
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39. Post Hoc fallacy
One thing happens after the other, therefore the first event caused the second event. (You're sitting at a red light, you sneeze and the light turns green. Your sneeze did not effect the light.)
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40. Causal oversimplification
When it is believed that there is one simple cause for an outcome, when it may have been caused by a more complex myriad of joint causes.
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41. Problems with statistical evidence
???
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42. Randomization
process of making something random- important for making statistical evidence reliable.
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43. External validity
Validating a cause in scientific studies.
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44. Conceptual definition and operational definition
Con=textbook definition. Op=identifies observable conditions and how to measure them.
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45. Control group
Provides a standard of what the group would normally do. (It's the group you give the placebo to, to compare to the group with the actual drug)
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46. Dangers of relying on personal experience
Our senses can trick us- selective attention and memory can change.
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47. Halo effect
testimony by a party that is liked, so the statement is well received and therefore are more likely to believe them.
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48. Purpose of an experiment
To create or collect evidence to prove a hypothesis.
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49. Scientific attitude toward knowledge
A way you make a claim, not what you find, it's how you follow the procedure and eliminate biases and errors.
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50. Placebo effect
I think we know what this means..
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