Biology Exam

• 1. All living matter is made up of cells
• 2. All cells come from pre-existing cells; they do not come from non-living matter
• 3. The cell is the building blocks of all life and is the simplest unit (in biology)

A simple, single celled organism that does not have a nucleus.

Cells that contain a nucleus and have a more complex internal organization.

• 1. Single Celled Organisms (all functions are done in one cell)
• 2. Multi-Cellular Organisms (more complex)

(Field of view) / (# of ojects accross field)

(magnification of high power lens) / (magnification of low power lens)

(FOV low) / (ratio)

(High magnification) / (Low FOV) = (Low magnifaction) / (high FOV)

Replacement and repair, reproduction, and growth.

All cells have a limited lifespan, or can become damaged, so these cells must make copies of themselves before they die to replace the lost, or heal the damaged.

New cells are needed as organisms grow, as there are limitations to their size.

glucose + oxygen -> carbon dioxide + usable energy + metabolic waste

Diffusion

The movement of water from areas of high concentration to low concentration through a semi-permeable membrane.

Specialized structures within a cell that perform specific functions for the cell.

A lab tool used to magnify an object that combines the used of both objective and ocular lenses.

To become larger in the process of natural growth, or to begin to develop buds.

The form of asexual reproduction practiced by plants, where new individuals rise without the use of seeds or spores.

The parent cells invovled in sexual reproduction and carry half of the genetic information of the daughter cell.

If cells did not make copies of themselves, then their traits would die out.

• 1. Interphase
• 2. Mitosis
• 3. Cytokinesis

• DNA condense and become compact (chromosomes)
• each chromosme consists of two identical sister chromatids
• a centromere holds together the sister chromatids
• the nucleaur membrane begins to break down
• the centrioles begin to move to opposite ends of the cell

• chromosomes line up along the equator
• centrioles reach opposite ends of the cell
• the centrioles send out spindle fibres

• spindle fibres attatch to the centromeres, and pull paired chromosomes apart
• the cell begins to enlongate
• each end of the cell has a compilation of daughter chromosmes

• chrosomes stretch out and become thinner
• new nuclear membrane forms around each group of sister chromatids
• the cleavage of the cell membrane begins to furrow

• 1. Prophase
• 2. Metaphase
• 3. Anaphase
• 4. Telophase

• 1. takes in nutrients
• 2. excretes waste
• 3. produces energy
• 4. makes proteins
• 5. grows

• cytoplasm pinches between the two new nuclei, seperating them
• two new identical daughter cells have been created
• in plant cells, the cell walls remain attatched

A cell that continuosly divides, despite messages from the nucleus and surronding cells to stop.

Rapidly growing mass of cells that stay together, and do not affect the surronding cells.

A rapidly growing mass of cells that interfere with the functions of neighbouring cells and tissues. These are cancer cells.

When cancer cells break away from the mass, settling in other parts of the body.

Random changes of DNA during duplication.

Mutations caused by environmental factors (eg. tobacco smoke, radiation, UV rays etc.)

Carcinogens and hereditary factors.

Avoid tobacco smoke, heathy diet, eat "super foods", stay fit, don't be obese.

Through imaging technologies (X-Ray, ultrasound, MRI etc.) or by examining the cells (remove suspected cancer cells and observe under microscope).

• surgery (physically remove cancerous tissues)
• chemotherapy (drugs to slow/stop cancer cells)
• radiation (cancer cells easily damaged by ionizing radiation)
• biophotonics (beams of light to detect/treat cancer)

Cells before the specialize.

Have different structural and functional differences, as certain genes have been activated and deactivated by different proteins being produced.

• 1. Atoms (ultramicroscopic building blocks of matter)
• 2. Molecules (2 or more atoms combined)
• 3. Cells (association of molecules, growth/devolpment)
• 4. Tissues (cells that perform the same function working together)
• 5. Organs (tissues work together to perform specialized anatomical and physiological functions)
• 6. Organ systems (several organs with complementary functions)

• water
• sodium chloride
• proteins
• carbohydrates
• lipids (fats)

Tissue that covers the body surface, lines the body cavities, forms major parts of glands. Lack of blood supply is made up by connective tissue underneath.

• Protecting the inner tissues from dehydration, irritation, toxic substances and trauma
• Absorbing gases and nutrients such as in the lungs and the digestive tract
• Transporting nutrients, fluids, mucus, and other particles of matter
• Secreting cell products such as enzymes, sweat and hormones
• Sense the environment (ears, nose and taste buds)

A tissue that provides support and protection to the body, and can also transport materials and store things.

• 1. Connective tissue proper
• 2. Cartilage
• 3. Bone
• 4. Blood

Consists of adipose (fat), elastic and collagen. Found between and around muscles, make up tendons and ligaments, beneath the skin and in the walls of many organs.

• supporting tissue with tensile strength (firm yet rubber-like), no blood vessels
• 1. Hyaline (ends of bones, external ear, nose, larynx, trachea and bronchi-weakest and most common)
• 2. Elastic (epiglottis, external ear, Eustachian tubes - flexible, branching fibres)
• 3. Fibrous (skull bones, between disks of spinal cord - strongest)

The hardest connective tissue. Consists of cells, collagen fibres, and dense substances made of calcium and phosphate. Rich in blood supply, also the site of blood cell formation in the blood marrow.

A specialized connective tissue whose base substance is a fluid. The blood transports nutrients, gases and waste products around the body.

• Epithelial
• Connective
• Muscle
• Nervous

A tissue with the ability to exert force and produce movement when it contracts. The cells are enlongated so they will not be damaged during the contractions and relaxtions.

• 1. Skeletal (attached to bone ie. voluntary muscle)
• 2. Smooth (walls of digestive, urinary, circulatory and respiratory tracts ie. involuntary muscle)
• 3. Cardiac (found in heart ie. involuntary muscle)

A tissue that recieves information from the outside world and transports the electrical stimulus to the brain, where it is interpreted so the body can react.

An organ system that takes in food, break it down to recieve nutritional components, then excretes the remaining waste.

• 1. Ingestion (intake of food)
• 2. Physical digestion (mechanical breakdown of food - teeth, tounge and stomach)
• 3. Chemical digestion (food particels broken down by action of enzymes so nutrients can be absorbed - mouth, stomach, small intestine)
• 4. Egestion (elimination of waste)

• Proteins into amino acids
• Carbohydrates into glucose
• Fats into fatty acids and glycerol

Food is ingested through an opening and moves into a sac that conatins digestive enzymes. The waste is excreted through the same opening.

This involves a loong tube with two opening, one at either end.

• Storage system
• Herbivore system
• Carnivore/Omnivore system

A storage sack, called a crop, stores large amounts of food for later breakdown and gradual digestion near the beginning of the digestive tract. eg. Birds and Worms

Since herbivores consume plant matter that contains cullulose, which is hard to digest, they need a longer digestive tract to allow for sufficient opportunity for absorption.eg. Cows

An animal that has a digestive system that allows for otherwise indigestible foods to be digested through a herbivore system. The food is repeatedly regurgitated and rechewed as "cud", then reswallowed and furth digested by specialized microorganisms in the vumen.

• There are four compartments.
• 1. Rumen - specialized microorganisms are here to digest food (largest compartment)
• 2. Reticulum - "Honeycomb"
• 3. Omasum - absorb water and nutrients
• 4. Abomasum - "true stomach", like human stomach

A complex digestive tract made up of 4 different tissue types.

The epithelial lining of the digestive tract that consists of different mucus, enzyme, and hormone secretin cells and absoprtive cells.

Part of the digestive tract that consists of connective tissues, blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic vessels.

Circular layer of smooth muscle that forms a ring around the tube to contact the lumen.

Layer of connective tissue that covers the outside of the digestive tract, seperating it from the rest of the abdominal organs.

The serosa of the digestive tract.

• 1. Mouth (physical and chemical digestion of food - process of mastication [mechanical breakdown of food])
• 2. Esophagus (muscular tube that connects the pharynx to the stomach, chewed food moves through ripples called peristalsis)
• 3. Stomach (stores and releases food into intestines in regular intervals, mechanical and chemical digestion using hydrochloric acid, turns food into chyme)
• 4. Small Intestine (major site of digestion and absoption)
• 5. Large Intestine (absorb water from waste, hold and compact unabsorbed waste, Vitamin K is produced here)
• 6. Accessory Organs

Hydrochloric Acid

• 1. Duodenum (recieves secretions from pancreas and the liver for final chemcial breakdown)
• 2. Jejunum (first part of the absorption process)
• 3. Ileum (completes the absorption process)

Cecum, Ascending/Transverse/Descending/Sigmoid Colon, Rectum, Anus

• 1. Liver
• 2. Gall Bladder
• 3. Pancrease

• Produce bile, which is highly basic and neutralizes the acidic chyme from the stomach
• Break down fats
• Regulate the level of glucose in the bloodstream
• Remove ammonium
• Produce cholestrol which is used to rebuild cells
• Produce blood-clotting chemicals

Stores some of the bile that the liver produces, and allows it to drip into the duodenum when food passes through.

• Produce bicarbonates to help control the pH level in the duodenum
• Produce hormones, such as insulin, in repsonse to sugar levels in the blood
• Produce enzymes (major task or pancreas)

• Transport substances around the body, including carrying nutrients to the cells and waste away
• Regulate the body's temperature
• Transport disease-fighting white blood cells

• 1. Blood
• 2. Tubes and vessels
• 3. The heart

• 1. Red blood cells (carry oxygen) - 45%
• 2. White blood cells (infection-fighting cells) - <1%
• 3. Platelets (initiate the clotting process) - <1%
• 4. Plasma (liquid part of the blood which transport the various cells) - 55%

• 1. Arteries (thick, muscular, carry blood away from the heart)
• 2. Veins (less muscular, larger in diameter, carry blood toward the heart)
• 3. Capillaries (tiny blood vessels, thin walls, red blood cells move through tubes one at a time, supplies each part of the body with a network of capillaries)

• send blood throughout body
• pacemaker controls beating of heart through electrical signals
• pump consists of chamber (atria and ventricles)

Blood is dumbed into the body cavity from the arteries. Later, the pressure increases and pushes the blood back into the veins. (eg. mollusks, anthropads, insects)

• All blood vessels are connected, keeping the fluid inside the tubes.
• 1. Single Circulation
• 2. Double Circulation - Three Chambered Heart
• 3. Double Circulation - Four Chambered Heart

• involves a two chambered heart (one atrium and one ventricle)
• eg. fish

• oxygen rich blood from the lungs goes to the left atrium
• oxygen poor blood from the body goes into the right atrium
• both atria empty into one common ventricle, blood mixes
• eg. Frog

• Oxygenated blood pumps from the left atrium to the left ventricle
• Deoxygenated blood pumps from the right atrium to the right ventricle
• eg. Humans

Provide the oxygen needed by the body and remove the carbon dioxide produced.

Gas molecules dissolved in a fluid before they can pass through a thin, mosit membrane through the process of diffusion. Maximum surface area is attained in the membrane.

• 1. Breathing (mechanical process by which gases are exchanged between the organism and the environment)
• 2. Respiration (cellular process that takes place in the mitochondria of every cell in the body

• 1. Flow through
• 2. In and out

The medium (air or water) comes in through one opening, flows through a channel in the body, and exits via a second opening. eg. Fish (indirect)

The medium carrying the gases enters through one opening, travels along a path to the gas exchange surface, and leaves the body through the same opening.

The gas exchange occurs by diffusion through the epidermal layer, which is kept moist by mucus secretions. Blood cappilaries are found in the epidermal layer so the gases can diffuse directly through the skin into the blood stream.

This system uses internal tubes and sacs through which gases are either diffused or are actively pumped, delivering oxygen directly to tissues via the trachea.

Air enters through the mouth or nostrils, travels down the trachea to the bronchi, which seperates into brochioles. This leades to the alveoli, where the actual gas exchange occurs.

It is the communication and control system of the body that links the external environment and the body together, allowing the organism to react appropriately.

• 1. Central nervous system (brain and spinal cord)
• 2. Peripheral nervous system (nerves to the organs and cells)

It relays information from the internal and external environments to the brain. It carries messages from the brain to the body organs for appropriate responses.

• 1. Motor Nerves (nerves that control voluntary muscles such as skeletal muscles)
• 2. Sensory Nerves (nerves that relay information from the sensory organs and touch receptors to the brain)
• 3. Nerves that control and regulate involuntary functions such as breathing, heart rate, and digestion

• Dendrites (short, branching extensions of the cell body that recieve information from other cells)
• Cell body (recieves the information from the dendrites, and the nucleus determines if the signal should continue)
• Axon (long thin path lead from the cell body to the axon terminals where the transmitted signal release a neurochemical)

A nerve signal is conducted in one direction along the nerve cell, where a chemical is diffused accross the synapse, to stimulate receptors of the next nerve cell. To speed up the movement of the signal, the axon is covered with a fatty material called myelin, which acts as insulation ensuring the electrical signals continues along its correct path.

This system is responsible for supporting the body, protecting vital organs, and making movement possible.

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Connective tissue (bone, ligaments and cartilage)

• 1. Flat bones (skull, scapula-shoulder blade-, ribs)
• 2. Irregular bones (vertebra)
• 3. Sesamoid bones (Patella)
• 4. Long bones (femur-thigh-, humerus-upper arm-)
• 5. Short bones (carpals-fingers-, tarsals-foot-)

Tough, elastic connective tissues that hold the bones together at the joints. They are composed of long, collagen fibres.

Dense, connective tissue that is found between the bones to provide a strong, flexible support system. This tissue makes up the disks between the vertebra and the pads between the bones.

Sketelal muscles are made up of overlapping muscle fibres, that contract and cause the overlap to increase, shortening the muscle and pulling on the bone. Muscles are attached to a tendon which is attached to the bone.

e) All of the above

• Veins are larger in diameter
• Arteries are more muscular
• Veins are thinner
• Arteries carry blood away from the heart, veins carry blood toward the heart.

False

Tendons

Platelets

• Tricuspid - between the right atrium and ventricle
• Bicuspid - between the left atrium and ventricle

Diffusion is the transportation of gases through a semi-permeable membrane from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.