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Intellectual Capital
the total sum of a workforce's knowledge and ability that can be used for the organization's benefit.
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Workforce Diversity
creating and maintaining a workforce that is represented by groups of people of different age groups, ethnicities, genders, races, religions, and sexual orientations.
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Prejudice
having preconceived unreasonable attitudes regarding members of a certain demographic, population, or group (race, gender, age, etc.) - sets the stage for diversity bias.
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Discrimination
when members of a particular group are given substandard and unfair treatment in the organization.
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Glass Ceiling Effect
an unseen barrier that stops minority groups and women from attaining high positions in organizations, despite adequate experience and qualifications.
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Globalization
the process by which different countries and regions have become interdependent in regard to resources, markets, and competition.
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Portfolio Worker
a person who can adapt to different jobs and careers due to possessing many different types of skills.
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Organization
an arrangement of workers who collaborate to accomplish a collective goal.
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Open System
an system that both responds to and has an effect on its enviroment
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Productivity
the cost of the various inputs compared to the value of the outputs.
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Performance Efficiency
a measure of input that describes how well resources were used in completing an objective.
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Performance Effectiveness
a measure of output in the form of a goal or objective accomplishment.
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Administrators
the name given to managers in a non-profit or government organization.
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Supervisors
the lowest-level management position.
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Line Managers
oversee employees "on the front lines" who create the goods and/or services for the organization's customers. These managers interact with employees on a daily basis.
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Staff Managers
support the line workers with certian technical skills. An example of one in a car production facility is the director of human resources.
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Functional Managers
have expertise in a single area, such as production, accounting, human resources, sales, or marketing.
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General Managers
have an area of responsibility that encompasses many functional areas. This person in a furniture production plant would be in charge of production, accounting, sales, and inventory.
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Management
Planning, organizing, leading, and controlling and organization's resources.
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Planning
the psychological process of determining appropriate activites that achieve the objectives and goals of the organization.
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Organizing
comes after planning, and is the process of coordinating financial, physical, and human resources to accomplish the plan in place.
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Leading
motivating others to accomplish goals and objectives by fostering enthusiasm and dedication.
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Controlling
keeping track of performance and taking corrective action if the expected outcomes are not reached. This is an especially important function if an organization is in a constantly changing or unpredictable enviroment.
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Top Managers
in charge of leading and managing either the whole organization or a large part of it. Titles include president, CEO, vice president.
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Middle Managers
monitor and leade large divisions that are made up of numerous smaller business units. Examples include plant managers, general managers, and divisional managers.
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Interpersonal Roles
the way a manager communicates with others, both inside and outside of the work unit
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Leader
Interpersonal Role: motivating others and giving them focus.
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Figurehead
Interpersonal Role: implementing new policies and acting them out as an example to a subordinate.
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Liason
Interpersonal Role: acting as a "go-between" in groups and making sure activities are coordinated.
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Informational Roles
the way a manager analyzes and passon information.
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Disseminator
Informational Role: passing information on to others.
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Spokesperson
Informational Role: being the official person to give out the information.
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Monitor
Informational Role: obsserving in order to find new information.
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Decisional Roles
the way a manager utilizes information when making a decision; the manager will attempt to solve problems and take advantage of opportunities.
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Resource Allocator
Decisional Role: deciding how much of the budget and other resources goes to each business unit, team, or project.
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Disturbance Handler
Decisional Role: helping to solve various problems, including clashes between individuals and groups.
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Negotiator
Decisional Role: cutting deals and making agreements with others both inside and outside of the work unit.
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Entrepreneur
Decisional Role: taking advantage of opportunities by putting forth new courses of action.
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Agenda Setting
allows managers to prioritze goals, make action plans, and create timelines for completion.
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Networking
creates good relationships with many acquaintances and associates both inside and outside of the firm.
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Social Capital
the ability to utilize one's network connections and relationships to accomplish goals.
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Technical Skill
a special knowledge or expertise that allows a person to operate in a specialized field.
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Human Skill
includes a person's social ability and the capacity to work well with others.
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Emotional Intelligence
the ability to manage ourselves and our relationships effectively.
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Conceptual Skills
allow a manager to think about and analyze complex or abstract situations.
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Bureacracy
a type of organizational structure that has a specific hierarchy of authority, a well-defined division of labor, clear rules and procedures on behavior and performance, impersonal relationships, and carreer advancement based on merit.
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Motion Study
breaking a task down into its fundamental activities.
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Hawthorne Effect
when a group of workers being studied are given special attention, and subsequently improve their performance because of this.
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Organizational Behavior
how individuals and groups act within organizations.
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Human Relations Movement
emphasized the importance of managers focusing on good human relations in order to increase worker output.
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Theory X
- assumes the average person:
- would rather follow than lead
- does not like working
- is lazy and unmotivated
- is very irresponsible
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Theory Y
- assumes that the average person:
- is creative
- is willing to work, since it is a natural human activity (play or rest)
- seeks responsibility
- is self-directed
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Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
when one person's expectations cause another person to act as orginally expected.
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Operations Research
using quantitative analysis and mathemetical tools in management, believing that problems can be solved with the appropriate data and the correct mathematical models.
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Operations Management
a field of study that analyzes the way goods and services are rendered and attempts to improve the process, viewing an organization as a system.
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System
a set of smaller coordinated parts that work in tandem to produce a desired result.
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Subsystems
the smaller coordinated parts of a system that work together.
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Contingency Thinking
utilizing different management approaches when the situation calls for it.
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Learning Organization
an organization that is constantly improving and evolving since it changes operations and processes as a result of past experiences.
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Evidence-Based Management
uses actual scientific data and information on which approaches really work to make management decisions, rather than blindly accepting common management platitutdes or the current management trends.
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Satisfaction
the condition of need fulfillment.
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Maslow's Needs Theory
every human has five types of needs, and that the quest to satisfy these needs follows a hierarchy or orderly progression from lowest to highest.
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Satisfaction Progression
once a need is satisfied, a person will move on to strive to satisfy the next higher need.
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Alderfer's Needs Theory
a new take on Maslow's hierarchy. Revised with only three needs: existence, relatedness, and growth.
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Existence Needs
- all the basic physical and material needs that every person has.
- (Maslow's physiological and security needs combined.)
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Relatedness Needs
includes all needs to interact with others, positively or negatively.
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Growth Needs
- the highest for of needs for both Alderfer and Maslow. Corresponds to Maslow's Self-Actualization needs.
- Can be furthur subdivided into external and internal esteem.
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External Esteem
Growth Need: can only be satisfied by relating to others; it requires the social approval of others.
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Internal Esteem
Growth Need: is not dependent upon social approval, but is a function of how they feel about themselves and their accomplishments.
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Frustration Regression Principle
- when a person experiences frustration while striving to achieve a higher-order need, they will "regress" or go backward to a lower-order need that was more concrete and/or measurable.
- (Alderfer)
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McClelland's Manifest Needs
- A theory related to Alderfer and Maslow
- Similar to Alderfer, had three needs: the need for power, affiliation and achievement.
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nPow
fundamental to the competency of a leader at any level in the organization.
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nAff
fundamental to communicatoin effectiveness and social awareness.
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nAch
- Most researched of McClelland's three needs.
- Critical to work performance, embodies taking on tasks that are challenging.
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Achievement Motivation
= nAch - Fear of Failure
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Equity Theory
our innate inclination to compare the goodness of our circumstances to the goodness of others' circumstances.
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Expectancy
the belief or confidence that a person's effort will lead to performance.
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Instrumentality
the belief that, if you do perform, your performance will be noted and rewarded.
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Valance
the degree to which the reward that you are given is valuable to you.
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Negative Inequity
when a person (A) perceives that they are receiving relatively fewer outcomes (rewards) for their given inputs (efforts) than they person they compare themselves to (B).
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Procedural Justice
a person's belief that the process of allocating rewards or punitive measures is just.
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Distributive Justice
primarily focuses on the unfair distribution of resources.
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Interactional Justice
a person's sense of fair treatment insofar as it involves the communication process.
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Two-Factor Theory
- Assumes an association between satisfaction and motivation.
- Frederick Herzberg
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Hygiene Factors
- Two-Factor Theory: those things that tend to be extrinsic to the job.
- Low ratings relate to employee dissatisfaction with work.
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Motivation Factors
Two-Factor Theory: tend to be intrinsic in nature, and they have the potential to create satisfaction (motivation) in employees.
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Acts of Citizenship
receiving a sense of intrinsic reward for doing something good for nothing.
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Cognitive Evaluation Theory
- where a person experiences less motivation (because they experience less overall rewards) to complete a task that is rewarded or officially sanctioned by the organization or manager.
- Also called, "crowding out."
- Some tasks are so highly intrinsically rewarding that offering extrinsic rewards (pay or "credit") for them actually has a net effect of lowering the satisfaction the person receives from the act when they volunteer.
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Conditioned Response
when one event (sight/sound/smell) automatically triggers a response in a person.
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Operant Conditioning
- learnign associations between behaviors and consequences.
- Based ont he law of effect.
- Punishment/Rewards; Skinner.
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Law of Effect
- behaviors that are rewarded will tend to be repeated, while behaviors that are not rewarded will not.
- Thorndike
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Shaping Behavior
- Teaching elaborate behaviors by rewarding them for incremental (gradual) desirable changes in behavior.
- Skinner with birds, mice.
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Saturation
when the desirablitity of a consequence (reward) diminishes over time because the person has a lesser desire for that particular reward.
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MBO
- a program of goal setting first popularized by Peter Drucker in his 1954 book, The Practice of Management.
- Prescribes that the most effective goals are characterized by eight conditions.
- 1. Challenging 2. Attainable 3. Specific 4. Reward Contingent 5. Measurable 6. Feedback Richness 7. Jointly Set 8. Time Bound (9?) Morally Worthy
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Skill Variety
the number of different activities performed by an employee.
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Task Identity
the extent to which the employee's work can be identified as a "meaningful whole" with a beginning and an end.
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Task Significance
the degree to which an employee can perceive the impact of his/her work on the final product, other employees, or the work enviroment.
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Autonomy
the level of control an employee has over deciding how and when work is completed.
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Feedback
- information regarding performance.
- That it be rich and timely is important, as it results in knowledge of the work outcomes.
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Motivating Potential Score (MPS)
- The formula used in calculating the motivational quality of jobs.
- (Skill Variety + Task Identity + Task Significance)/3 x (Autonomy) x (Feedback)
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Perception
the process of interpreting and organizing the sensations we attend to.
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Perceptual Organization
the process of organizing our enviromental stimuli into recognizable patterns. Four of the principles we use to assist in this effort include figure-ground separation, similarity, proximity, and closure.
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Figure-Ground
- Perceptual Organization: Perceiving objects that stand against a background.
- Ex: missing nonverbal messages due to the verbal conversation, the figure.
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Similarity
- Perceptual Organization: Stimuli that have common phsiycal traits are more likely to be grouped together than those that do not.
- Ex: Athletic teams, or assigning different color schemes to different divisions within a plant.
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Proximity
- Perceptual Organization: Stimuli that occur in the same proximity, either in space or in time, are often associated.
- Ex: When you see two people together frequently, you may begin to associate a characteristic of one person to the other as well.
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Closure
- Perceptual Organization: Due to the fact that most stimuli we perceive are incomplete, we naturally tend to extrapolate information and project additional information to form a complete picture.
- Ex: Seeing a pole in front of a stop sign, but completing the mental picture of the sign due to past memories.
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Cognitive Complexity
- the degree to which individuals have developed complex catagories for organizing information.
- Allows us to differentiate people and events using multiple criteria, which increases the accuracy of our perceptions.
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Halo Effect
the tendency to allow one personality trait to influence our perceptions of other traits.
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Selective Perception
the process of systematically screening out information we don't wish to hear.
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Projection
the tendency to attribute our own feelings and characteristics to others.
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Primacy Effect
the tendency for first impressions and early information to unduly influence our evalutations and judgement.
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Stereotyping
- categorizing individuals based on one or two traits, and attributing other characteristics to them based on their membership in that category.
- The process of using a few attributes about an object to classify it and then responding to it as a member of a category rather than as a unique object.
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Pygmalion Effect
- a phenomenon that occurs when a person acts ina way that confirms another's expectations.
- Also called a "Self-Fulfilling Prophecy"
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Personality
enduring characteristics that describe an individual's attitudes and behavior.
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Fundamental Attribution Error
the tendency to overestimate the influence of personality in understanding human behavior.
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Attribution Theory
the assignment of responsibility and the cognitive process we use to understand why people act as they do.
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Extroversion
represents the degree to which people are outgoing, social, assertive, active, and talkative.
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Introversion
refers to those who are shy, antisocial, passive, and quiet.
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Locus of Control
the degree to which individuals believe that their actions influence the rewards they receive in life.
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Magnitude
the level of task difficulty that a person believes he or she can attain, and is related to the concept of goal-setting.
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Strength
the amount of confidence one has in one's ability to perform.
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Generality
the degree to which one's expectations are generalized across many situations or restricted to an isolated instance.
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Hypothetical Construct
- an abstract concept regarding the relationships between people and events that exists because we can operationally define it even though it does have a physical reality.
- Ex: Satisfaction, intelligence, commitment, and honesty.
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Emotional Intelligence
the competencies that allow us to perceive, understand, and regulate emotions in ourselves and others.
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Behavioral Intentions
the extent to which we actually expect to perform a given act.
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Behavioral Evaluations
the process of interpreting and making sense of our behavior.
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Job Satisfaction
the attitudes employees hold regarding factors in their work enviroment, particularly pay and benefits, the characteristics of the job, supervision, fellow workers, and opportunities for advancement.
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Workaholic
people so involved in their work that they are addicted to working and unable to pursue other meaningful activities without feeling nervous, anxious, or guilty.
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Normative Commitment
a strong belief in and acceptance of the organization's values and goals.
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Affective Commitment
- a strong emotional attachment to the organization and a willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf of it.
- Generally affects job performance the most.
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Continuance Commitment
a strong desire to maintain membership in the organization.
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