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Longitudinal sections
- a section parallell to the long axis of the organism or part
- sagittal
- midsagittal
- frontal
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Sagittal section
- longitudinal section separating the organism into right and left parts
- parasagittal - parts are not equal
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Mid-Sagittal section or median plane
longitudinal section separating the organism into equal right and left parts
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Transverse plane
- cross-section
- section perpendicular to the long axis of the organism or part
- separates quadruped body or part into:
- - cranial portion - aka cephalic
- - caudal portion
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Frontal section
longitudinal section separating the organism into dorsal and ventral parts
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Cranial
at or toward the organism's head
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Caudal
at or toward the organism's tail
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Dorsal
at or toward the organism's backbone
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Ventral
at or toward the organism's 'belly' (underside for quadrupeds)
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Anterior
- at or toward the organism's forward facing part
- cranial for quadrupeds
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Posterior
- at or toward the organism's rearward facing part
- caudal for quadrupeds
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Medial
toward the midline
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Proximal
nearest to a reference point
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Distal
farthest from a reference point
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Rostral
a point closer to the tip of the nose
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Pinna
direct sound waves into ears
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Body cavities
- dorsal cavity
- - cranial cavity
- - vertebral canal
- ventral cavity
- - organs in the ventral cavity are referred to as viscera
- - thoracic cavity
- - abdominal
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Thoracic cavity
- pleural cavities lined with serous membranes
- - parietal pleura
- - visceral pleura (aka pulmonary pleura)
- pericardial cavity
- - region within mediastinum; between the 2 pleural cavities
- - parietal pericardium
- - visceral pericardium (aka epicardium)
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Abdominal cavity
- peritoneal cavity (peritoneum)
- pelvic cavity
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Peritoneal cavity
- mesentery - anchors
- - mesoduodenum - duodenum - portion of 1st portion of small intestine; this anchors to abdominal wall
- - mesovarium - anchors portion of ovarian area
- greater omentum
- lesser omentum
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Pelvic cavity
- peritoneum extends into cranial portions of the cavity & covers urinary bladder & reproductive organs
- urinary bladder
- rectum
- reproductive organs
- - males outside pelvic cavity as need lower temp
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Retrotperitoneal
- outside peritoneum
- kidneys
- part of small intestine
- pancreas
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Tongue
papillae on side help create vacuum when nursing
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Spleen
part of cardiovascular & lymph system
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Adrenal
epithelial glandular tissue with nervous tissue in center
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Pig digestive system
- do NOT have an appendix
- cecum is beginning of large intestine
- iliocecal valve between small and large intestine
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Urogenital sinus
- single opening with separate urethra & vagina
- divides in vestibule
- males have common passage
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Fibrous pericardium
provides additional protection to heart
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Pulmonary trunk
delivers blood from heart to lungs for oxygenation
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Artery
- carries blood away from heart
- mostly oxygenated except pulmonary & umbilical arteries
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Vein
- carries blood to heart
- mostly NOT oxygenated except pulmonary & umbilical vein
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Larynx
7 cartilages in pig
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Pituitary
- in sella turcica
- works with areas of CNS
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Thymus
- programs T-lymphocytes to recognize self vs not self
- atrophies with age
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Manus
- terminal portion of forelimb
- forefoot
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Pes
- distal end of hind limb
- hind foot
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Plantigrade
posture in which the heel and digits of each foot rests on the ground
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Digitigrade
form of locomotion in which the heel is elevated above the ground
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Homologous
structures in different species that are similar due to shared common ancestry
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Homologue
- any organ corresponding in function, origin, and structure to another organ
- eg the flippers of a seal correspond to human hands
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Homeothermy
the maintenance of a constant body temperature despite changes in the environmental temperature
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Thorax
- the part of the body that lies between the neck and the abdomen
- aka chest
- is composed of a bony framework reinforced by soft parts
- contains the main organs of circulation and respiration
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Abdomen
- the part of the body of a mammal between the thorax and the pelvis
- aka belly
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Nares
nostrils or nasal passages
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Egestion
The act or process of voiding or discharging undigested food as feces
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Excretion
- the act or process of discharging waste matter from the blood, tissues, or organs
- the matter, such as urine or sweat, that is so excreted.
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Urogenital
- of or relating to the urinary and genital organs and their functions
- aka genitourinary
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Vulva
- The external genital organs of the female
- including the labia majora, labia minora, clitoris, and vestibule of the vagina
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Cervical
- 1. Relating to or involving the cervix of the uterus.
- 2. Relating to or located in or near the neck.
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Pectoral girdle
a skeletal support to which the front or upper limbs of a vertebrate are attached
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Pelvic girdle
the skeletal structure to which the hind limbs are attached
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Placenta
- the vascular organ formed in the uterus during pregnancy
- consists of both maternal and embryonic tissues
- provides oxygen and nutrients for the fetus
- transfers waste products from the fetal to the maternal blood circulation
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Umbilical cord
- flexible cordlike structure connecting a fetus at the abdomen with the placenta
- contains two umbilical arteries and one vein that transport nourishment to the fetus and remove its wastes
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Umbilical vein
- a vein in the umbilical cord
- returns nutrient blood from the placenta to the fetus
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Umbilical arteries
- a paired artery (with one for each half of the body) that is found in the abdominal and pelvic regions
- in the fetus, it extends into the umbilical cord
- supply deoxygenated blood from the fetus to the placenta in the umbilical cord
- usually two umbilical arteries present together with one umbilical vein in the cord
- actually the latter of the internal iliac arteries that supply the hind limbs with blood and nutrients in the fetus
- surround the urinary bladder and then carry all the deoxygenated blood out of the fetus through the umbilical cord
- only arteries in the human body, aside from the pulmonary arteries, that carry deoxygenated blood
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Allantoic duct
- aka urachus
- a fetal canal connecting the bladder with the allantois
- persists throughout life as a cord (median umbilical ligament)
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Principal distinguishing characteristics of the Order Mammalia
- body surfaces covered with hair (pili)
- an integumentum with several types of glands
- a skull with 2 occipital condyles
- 7 cervical vertebrae
- teeth borne on bony jaws
- moveable eyelids
- pinnae
- 4 chambered heart
- muscular diaphragm separating thoracic & abdominal cavities
- endothermic
- young develop in uterus with placental attachment
- mammary glands (milk) to nourish young
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Occipital condyles
- found at the base of the occipital bone on the lower back portion of the skull
- one of two kidney-shaped convex surfaces that articulate with the superior facets of the atlas bone
- each condyle is located to either side of the foramen magnum
- shape of the occipital condyle allows for nodding and very slight lateral movements of the head
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Foramen magnum
the hole in the skull base through which the spinal cord enters the cranium
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Groups of articulations
- synarthrosis
- amphiarthosis
- diarthrosis
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Synarthrosis
- little or no movement
- sutures
- gomphosis
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Suture
- fairly rigid joint between two or more bones of an animal, without significant overlap
- eg joints between skull bones
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Gomphosis
- an articulation by the insertion of a conical process into a socket
- eg the insertion of a root of a tooth into an alveolus of the mandible or the maxilla
- not a connection between true bones but is considered a type of fibrous joint
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Amphiarthrosis
- slight movement
- gliding joints of wrist
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Diarthrosis
- freely moveable
- synovial joints
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General anatomy of synovial joints
- articular capsule
- - fibrous capsule lined by synovial membrane
- - continuous with periosteum
- synovial fluid
- - viscous slippery fluid rich in albumin & hyaluronic acid & similar to raw egg white
- articular cartilage
- - hyaline cartilage covering the bone surfaces
- meniscus
- - pad of fibrocartilage in jaw, wrist, knee
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Tendon
attaches muscle to bone
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Ligament
attaches bone to bone
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Aponeurosis
- layer of flat broad tendons
- have a shiny, whitish-silvery color
- histologically similar to tendons, but are very sparingly supplied with blood vessels and nerves
- when dissected, aponeuroses are papery, and peel off by sections
- primary regions with thick aponeurosis are in the ventral abdominal region, the dorsal lumbar region, and in the palmar region
- primary function is to join muscles and the body parts the muscles act upon
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Bone shape
- short
- - carpals
- - tarsals
- irregular
- - vertebrae
- - sesamoids
- flat
- - scapular bones
- - pelvic bones
- long
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Long bone structure
- periosteum & articular cartilage
- compact & spongy bone
- endosteum
- yellow marrow
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Axial skeleton
- skull
- ribcage
- vertebral column
- - cat 7C, 13T, 7L, 3S, 5-23Co
- - cattle 7, 13, 6, 5, 18-20
- - dog 7, 13, 7, 3, 20-23
- - goat 7, 13, 7, 5, 16-18
- - horse 7, 18, 6, 5, 15-21
- - pig 7, 14/15, 6/7, 4, 20-23
- - sheep 7, 13, 6/7, 4, 16-18
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Anticlinal vertebrae
- landmark - spinous process points straight upward
- T11 in dogs & cats
- T16 in horses
- T13 in cattle & sheep
- T10 in swine
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Herniated disc
a tear in the outer, fibrous ring (annulus fibrosus) of an intervertebral disc (discus intervertebralis) allows the soft, central portion (nucleus pulposus) to bulge out
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Appendicular skeleton
- bones of forelimbs & hind limbs
- pectoral & pelvic girdles
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Types of synovial joints
- ball & socket - spheroid
- ginglymus - hinge
- trochoid - pivot
- arthropoidal - gliding
- ellipsoidal - condyloid
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Ball & socket joints (spheroid)
- smooth hemispherical head fits within a cuplike depression
- - head of humerus into glenoid cavity of scapula
- - head of femur into acetabulum of hip bone
- multiaxial joint
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Hinge joints (ginglymus)
- one bone with convex surface that fits into a concave depression on another bone
- - ulna & humerus at elbow joint
- - femur & tibia at knee joint
- - metacarpal/phalanges
- monoaxial joint
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Pivot joints (trochoid)
- one bone has a projection that fits into a ringlike ligament of another
- first bone rotates on its longitudinal axis relative to the other
- - atlantoaxial joint - dens & atlas
- - radius/ulna
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Gliding joints (arthroidal)
- flat articular surfaces in which bones slide over each other
- - between carpals
- - between tarsals
- limited monoaxial joint
- considered amphiarthroses
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Condyloid (ellipsoidal) joints
- oval convex surface on one bone fits into a similarly shaped depression on the next
- - between femur/tibia
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Meniscus
- cartilage disk that acts as a cushion between the ends of bones that meet in a joint
- crescent-shaped fibrous cartilage between the bones at certain joints, esp at the knee
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Sutures
- immovable fibrous joins that bind the bones of the skull to each other
- serrate sutures appear as interlocking wavy lines
- between cranial bones
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Gomphoses
- attachment of a tooth to its socket is a joint called a gomphoses
- tooth held in place by fibrous periodontal ligament
- - collagen fibers that extend from bone of jaw to tooth
- allows tooth to move a little while chewing
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Myology
- muscular nomenclature
- - location - temporalis, dorsalis
- - shape - deltoid, trapezius
- - size - profundus, longus, maximus
- - direction of fibers - transverse, oblique, rectus
- - number of origins - biceps, triceps
- - origin & insertion - sternohyoideus
- actions
- - flexor - decreases joint angle - eg flex elbow, hand comes toward shoulder
- - extensor - increases joint angle - eg extend elbow, hand moves away from shoulder
- - abductor - draws limb away from median plane - raising arm to side
- - adductor - draws limb toward median plane - lowering arm to body
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Circumduction
- he circular (or, more precisely, conical) movement of a body part
- eg a ball-and-socket joint or the eye
- consists of a combination of flexion, extension, adduction, and abduction
- eg "Windmilling" the arms or rotating the hand from the wrist
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Rotation
- motion that occurs when a part turns on its axis
- the head rotates on the neck (C2 - axis cervical vertebrae), as in shaking the head 'no'
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Origin
- point at which it attaches to a bone (usually) or another muscle
- the structure that the origin is attached to is not moved by the contraction of the muscle
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Insertion
- attaches to the structure that will be moved by the contraction of the muscle
- usually connections of muscle via tendon to bone
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Gaster or belly
The fleshy, central part of a muscle
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Muscle fiber
- also technically known as a myocyte
- a single cell of a muscle
- contain many myofibrils, the contractile unit of muscles
- are very long; a single fibre can reach a length of 30cm.
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Muscle fascicles
bundle of skeletal muscle fibers surrounded by perimysium, a type of connective tissue
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Muscle
- a tissue composed of bundles of elongated cells
- capable of contraction and relaxation to produce movement in an organ or part
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Connective tissues of a muscle
- epimysium
- perimysium
- endomysium
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Epimysium
- covers whole muscle belly
- blends into connective tissue that separates muscles
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Perimysium
- slightly thicker layer of connective tissue
- surrounds a bundle of cells called a fascicle
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Endomysium
- thin layer of aereolar tissue surrounding each cell
- allows room for capillaries and nerve fibers
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Agonist
- prime mover
- muscle that actively contracts to produce a desired movement
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Antagonist
relaxes while prime mover contracts
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Synergist
- aids prime mover
- increases the action of another muscle
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Fixator
- stabilizes origin of prime mover
- muscle whose action tends to hold a body part in a certain position or limit its movement
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Intramusclular injection sites in cats & dogs
- gluteal muscles
- quadriceps
- gastrocnemius
- hamstring
- - Biceps femoris
- - Semimembranous
- - Semitendinosus
- Triceps brachii
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Intramusclular injection sites in cattle & goats
- gluteal
- hamstring
- triceps
- trapezius
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Intramusclular injection sites in horses
- gluteal
- hamstring
- triceps
- trapezius
- pectoral muscles
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Intramusclular injection sites in swine
- semitendinosus
- brachiocephalicus
- trapezius
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Panniculus carnosus
shivering & warmth
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Muscle tissue
cells capable of shortening & converting the chemical energy of ATP into mechanical energy
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Universal characteristics of muscle
- responsiveness (excitability)
- conductivity
- contractility
- extensibility
- elasticity
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Responsiveness (excitability)
capable of response to chemical signals, stretch or other signals & responding with electrical changes across the plasma membrane (negative charge -> positive -> negative)
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Conductivity
local electrical change triggers a wave of excitation that travels along the muscle fiber
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Contractility
cell shortens when stimulated
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Extensibility
capable of being stretched
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Elasticity
returns to its original resting lengh after being stretched/contracted
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Skeletal muscle
- voluntary - under concious control
- striated
- - exhibits alternating light & dark transverse bands (striations)
- - reflects overlapping arrangement of internal contractile proteins (actin & myosin)
- attached to one or more bones
- muscle fibers (myofibers) as long as 30 cm
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Physiology of skeletal muscle
basis of warm-up, strength, endurance & fatigue
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Cardiac muscle
- involuntary
- striated
- in comparison to skeletal muscle
- - cells shorter, thicker, branched & linked to each other at intercalated discs
- autorhythmic due to pacemaker cells
- uses aerobic respiration almost exclusively
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Smooth muscle
- involuntary
- no visible straiations, sarcomeres, or Z discs
- fusiform (spindle shaped) cells with one nucleus (fat in middle, taper at ends)
- nerve supply is autonomic, if any is present
- found in walls of hollow organs, around blood vessels (wrapping)
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Sliding filament theory of muscular contraction
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Be able to identify the muscles you located
- in lab after you are given the origin,
- insertion and the action(s) of the muscle
- including but not limited to:
- Abdominal muscles
- Biceps brachii
- Brachiocephalic
- Deltoideus
- Digastricus
- Gastrocnemius
- Gluteous superficialis
- Gluteous medius
- Gracilis
- Hamstrings
- Latissimus dorsi
- Masseter
- Pectoralis superficialis
- Pectoralis profundus
- Quadricepts
- Sartorius
- Trapezius
- Triceps brachii
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