Anatomically, what are the positions of the pharynx, larynx and trachea
The pharynx is aboe the larynx and trachea.
Remmber: PLT
What is the role of the pharynx
The pharynx is a passageway for food and air
What is the purpose of he larynx
The larynx does the major function of speech
TF: The epiglottis helps precent food from entering the lungs
True
located at the opening of the larynx (only way you are getting to the lungs from the pharynx)
Which lung has 3 lobes and which has 2?
The right lung has 3 lobes; left has 2
Describe generations of airway, what is involved in gas exhange
There are 23 generations of airways; 16 of which are dead space. Only the last 7 are involved in gas exchange
Which lung is most often mistakenly intubated or is involved in aspiration and why.
The right; it is shorter and straighter than the left. Recall that is has 3 lobes
What happens to the cilia in the lower airways in response to smoking?
The cilia lose the wavelike functions that serves as a defense mechanism to move offenders up and out
What is the role of surfactant?
The surfactant keeps the alveoli from collapsing
What is the role of the negative pressure in the pleural space
The negative pressure helps the lung adhere to the chest wall. The loss of negative pressure does not allow the lung to expand
What is the best way to listen to someone's lower and middle lobes
Posteriorly and under the arms
Explains what happens during inspiration
1. the diaphragm flattens -->
2. the thoraric space enlarges -->
3. intrathoracic pressure decreases -->
4. air enters the thoracic cavity
What accessory muscles are used for inspiration when work of breathing is increased
intercostals
scalenes
sternomastoclastoids
Remember: ISS
TF: Expiration is normally a passive process
True, but it may become active with diseases
How is the elastic recoil of the lungs during passive expiration counterbalanced
The elastic recoil is counterbalanced by the coupling of the pleural membrane/space to the chest wall
Define compliance
Compliance defines the elastic ability of the lung
Explain Ventilation/Perfusion
Ventilation/Perfusion is a matching (1:1) ratio of blood glow to gas exchange in the lung; this is ideal. There is a mismatching with disease
Explain what is happening when perfusion > ventilation
There is blood flow, but limited gas exchange; the airway are affected. Here, some common causes are atelectasis, pneumonia, tumors, mucous plugs.
Explain what is happening when ventilation > perfusion
There is gas exchange, but limited blood flow; the arteries are affected. Here, a common cause is a pulmonary embolism .
What is the most important protein for gas exchange?
hemoglobin
The transit time of a red blood cell through the pulmonary capillary is less than one second, how long does it take for the hemoglobin to become oxygenated?
1/3 second in a healthy lung
O2 binds to the hemoglobin molecule as _________________
oxyhemoglobin
TF: A large amount of Oxygen is dissolved in plasma as O2 moves through the interstitial space between the alveoli and the capillary
False; it binds to the hemoglobin as oxyhemoglobin
The diffusion of gas exhange is affected by what factors?
youth
exercise
supine position
male sex
smaller body size
disease free lungs
*these are positive factores
TF: Astham is most often a disease of the young and the poor
True
TF: African americans are more likely to get and then die from lung cancer
True
What groups are less likely to receive pneumonia and flu caccines
African americans and Native americans
Lung disease is the # ____ killer in America
three
What respiratory side effest do ACE inhibitors have?
dry cough
What respiratory side effect do cholesterol lowering agents have?
Shortness of breath
What is the #1 sign of respiratory disease?
cough
How much sputum is normal?
90cc/day
TF: Pulmonary pain is made worse by tourching or pressing over the area.
False; it is not usually made worse
paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea
intermittent dyspnea during sleep that will awaken
orthopnea
SOB that occurs when lying down but is relieved when sitting up
dyspnea scale - classes, ADL key
class1. no significant restrictions: ADL key 4
class2. climbing stairs: ADK key 3
class3. usual activities; not employable: ADL key 2
class4. needs helps in ADLS; little activity outside home: ADL key 1
class5. at rest; confined to home: ADL key 0
How does cyanosis play in role in respiratory assessment
It's a pretty late sign; it is not reliable and is affected by size and skin color
When percussing lungs, what shoud you hear?
resonance
What should you hear when auscultating the lungs?
vesticular lung sounds: inspiration > expiration
Note: bronchial is over the larynx andbronchovesticular are over the trachea
crackles are fine crackling sounds made as air moves through wet secretions in the lungs
define wheezes
continuous, high pitched squeak or musical sound made as air moves through narrowed or partially obstructed airway passages
define ronchi
How long do you have to get a sputum culture to the lab?
2 hours
what's important to note about pulse oximetry
Measures the saturation of hemoglobin
hemoglobin may be saturated with CO
affected by temperature, vasoconstriction, ambient light; ages
bronchoscopy: inserted, for, NPO?
Invasive procedure to visualixe the trachea and bronchi (lung and airways);
inserted through nose, mouth or trachea
can detect tumors, take samples, remove secretions, improve airlow
NPO for 48 hours prior
NPO for 2-3 hours after (gag must return)
thoracentesis: inserted, for, NPO?
Invasive procedure to aspirate fluid or air from the pleural space
Inserted in intercostal space
aspirate fluid or air from the pleural space
no need for NPO
How do you monitor someone after a bronchoscopy?
monitor:
oxygen sat
vital signs
breath sounds
TF: When you aspirate fluid or air from the pleural space using thoracentesis, it will not reaccumulate
False; it is often a temporary measure
What are interventions after thoracentesis?
chest x ray to ensure that lung wasn't nicked (pneumothorax)
check for crepitus
look for drainage
access for pain
access for dyspnea
position patient on side to apply pressure to site
If you notice crepitus after a thoracentesis, what do you do?
mark the site to see how far out it extends
notify physician immediately
Define tidal volume
inspiratory volument during quiet respirations
define vital capacity
maximum amount that can be inhaled or exhaled
define functional residual capacity
amount of air remianing in lungs after a maximal expiration
define total lung capacity
sum of the vital capacity and the residual volume
define forced vital capacity
max amount of air that can be exhaled as quickly as possible after a max inspiration
Remember: flows are "forced"
define forced expiratory volume1
amount of air exhaled in the first second; should be 70%
Remember: flows are "forced"
35% of where you should be is "severe"
Classify obstructive and restrictive lung diseases in terms of problems with flows or volumes
flows - obstructive diseases
restrictive diseases - volumes
Remember "forv" as in forever
obstructive diseases are marked by ____________________
increased airway resistance
restrictive diseases are marked by ____________________
reduction in the expansion of the thorax or lung tissue
Normal arterial pH range
7.35 - 7.45
the lower the pH, the more _______
acidic
the higher the pH, the more _______
alkaline
Increase in H+ leads to a _____________
decrease in pH (--> acidic)
Decrease in H+ leads to a _____________
increase in pH (-->base)
Describe levels of potassium in terms of the pH scale
acid = more H+ = more K
basic = less H+ = less K
normal paCO2
35 - 45
normal paO2
83-100
normal O2 sat
> 95%
normal HCO3
24-28
normal K
3.5 - 5
What are the sources of acid
protein metabolism
glucose metabolism
fat metabolism
anaerobic metabolism
cell destruction
carb metabolism
what are the sources of bases
breakdown of carbonic acid
absorption of bicarb by the intestines
reabsorption of bicarb by the kidneys
production of bicarb by the pancreas
intracellular movement
What are diet considerations for someone with acidosis
fat, protein, and carb metabolism produce acids
What are the three lines of defense in keeping the acid-base balance in the body
1. buffers
2. respiratory mechanisms
3. renal mechanisms
Explain buffers in relation to acid-base balance
Buffers are the first line of defense
There are chemical buffers and protein buffers
The buffers act to soak up the extra H+ ions in the body fluid or release H+ ions when needed to maintain balance
The chemical buffers are bicarbonate and phosphate
Protein buffers are hemoglobin and albumin
Explain the respiratory mechanism to maintain acid-base balance
Second line of defense
acts quickly
Sensitive to CO2 levels
if high, hyperventilate to blow off CO2
if low, hypoventilate to keep CO2
Explain the renal mechanism to achieve acie-base balance
third line of defense
takes effect at 24-48 hours
There is reabsorption or excretion of HCO3 to buffer the H+ ions
If HCO3 is formed and then reabsorbed in the kidneys, it leaves the urine negatively charged with phosphate which attacts H+ into the urine, forming acids for excretions
Ammonium is formed from the breakdown on ammonia which attracts H+ ions and allows them to be excreted in urine
All leads to less H+ which decreases acidity and increases pH
what are the manifestations of acidosis?
CNS depression
decrease in muscle tone
increased rate and depth of respirations
What are the manifestations of alkalosis?
CNS excitement
seizures
tetany
cramps
twitches, but weakness
myocardial irritability
TF: When determining whether compensation in uncompensated or not, look at whether the other mechanism value is normal or not.
True
How do you evaluate a PaO2 less than 80 mmHG (Arterial blood gas)
Increase oxygen delivery in order to figure out underlying cause
What is the percentage concentration of oxygen in the atmosphere?
21%
TF: the central receptors in the brain that control breathing are responsive to the body's levels of O2
False; they are sensitive to CO2
Chronic increases in CO2 levels > _____ can lead to a decrease in sensitivity o f central receptors in the brain
60
What is oxygen toxicity? Manifestations
An occurrence where O2 concentration is more than 50% for 48 hours.
fatigue
chest pain
cough
edema
In atelectatis, _______________ replaces oxygen in the alveoli
Nitrogen
You must provide humidification with oxygen greater than __L /minute
4
What is a way to make sure a pt receives oxygen without increasing the amount?
increase the pressure
What are some sources of infection related to oxygen delivery?
humidifier
nebulizer
cannulas
masks
*humidification increases risk
TF: Room air is still involved with low flow delivery systems
True; the total concentration of oxygen received by pt is dependent on resp rate and tidal volume -->variable
What are examples of low flow delivery systems
nasal cannula 1 - 6 L/min
simple face mask 6-8 L/min
partial rebreather 6-11 L/min
non-rebreather 12L/min
What are examples of high flow delivery systems
Venturi Makd 8-15 L/min
What are some problems with prolonged intubation?
Fistulas in/near your esophagus. recall that the esophagus is on the back side of the trachea.
After 7-10 days, advance to a tracheostomy
What is postop care after a tracheostomy
breath sounds
bleeding
pulsatio nof the tube
bed elevation to reduce swelling &promote drainage
humidify air (since upper airways won't be doing this)
what are complications of a tracheostomy
obstruction
dislodgement
pneumothorax - rare
subQ emphsema (crepitus)
bleeding
pressure ulcers
pulsating - life threatening
TF: It is okay to suction during insertion when performing trach care
False
How should you suction during trach care on the way out
intermittently
What are the rules for suctioning in trach care
2-3 passes
10-15 seconds at a time
never on insertion
intermittently during extraction
When suctioning trachs, the ideal pressure is
80-120 mm
TF: hyperventilate the pt prior to trach care
True; before each suctioning pass for 30 seconds to 3 minutes (3 times max) until heart rate and sat are normal
TF: Trach care is always sterile
False; in hospital, suctioning is a sterile technique. At home, it is a clean technique
Nebulizers are ________ driven and disperse meds through tiny particles
oxygen
Chest physiotherapy contains five areas....
1. cough and deep breathing
2. ambulation
3. postural drainage
4. chest percussion
5. vibration
In order to perform postural drainage, lobes need to be in what position
higher than mouth
When performing vibration PT, the person is shaken upon ________________(exhalation/inhalation)
exhalation
What are the obstructive lung diseases?
asthma
chronic bronchitis
emphysema
THINK: ACE
reversibility of obstructive lung diseases
asthma is most reversible
following by chronic bronchitis
followed by emphysema (least)
sputum production of obstructive lung diseases
chronic bronchitis has the most
asthma and emphysema - least
alveolar damage as it relates to obstructive lung disease
none w/ asthma
most with emphysema
less with chronic bronchitis
with asthma, is mortality higher in men or women
men
How is asthma obstructive
air way narrowing due to inflammation (smooth muscle contraction)
Is there damage with asthma?
Yes, even though reversible and no alveolar damage, there can be scarring of the airways (resulting in permanent narrowing)
What are the manifestations of asthma?
audible wheeze and cough
initially wheeze heard on expiration
progresses to both inspiration and expiration
longer respiratory cycle - harder to get out (think narrowing on expiration) --> barrell chest
use of accessory muscles
ABGs of asthmatic early in attack vs later in the attack
early:
fast and hard breathing --> low CO2, pH up
later:
tired, breathing slows --> high CO2, pH down
How can an xray and/or CBC help you in asthma diagnosis?
They won't show anything, but rather help to exclude other things i.e. lung tumor
Cholenergic inhibit the parasympathetic to rest and digest
Methylxanthines relaxes smooth muscle working like caffeine
short acting beta 2 agonist
albuterol
bitolterol
levalbuterol
pirbuterol
terbutaline
long acting beta 2 agonist
salmeterol
atrovent
formoterol
methylxanthines
throphylline
cholenergic antagonists
atrovent
spiriva
Describe the step approach - asthma
1. mild intermittent
2. mild persistant
3. moderate intermittent
4. sever persistent
5.6 severe persistent
which inhaler can give you thrush
steroid; rinse mouth
corticosteroids
flovent
prednisone
nsaids
tilade
leuokotrient antagonist
singulair
immunomodulator
xolair
emphysma
irreversible increases in size of airspaces
centrilobular - diffuse upper lobes - more bronchioles
panlovbular - lower lobes - entire alveolus
hyper inflated lungs
flattened diaphragm
how do the airways become larger in emphysema
elastases and proteases destroy elastic properties; these enzyymes are released by alveoli and there is a defiency of the antitrypsin which protects lungs
chronic bronchitis
hypertrophy and hyperplasia of submucosal glands
has is chronic bronchitis defined in terms of sputum
daily production of sputum for greater than 3 months for 2 years
COPD =
chronic bronchitis and emphysema
What is the number 1 cause of COPD?
smoking
Classic picture of COPD (Acidosis/alkalosis)
chronic respiratory acidosis
(CO2 may not always go up)
PO2 decreases
elevated white count
Red blood cell count up to get mmore oxygen
bacteria that causes respiratory infections in COPD
-streptococcus pneumonia
-H influenza
-staph
-pseudomonas
Who gets cor pulmonle (right sided heart failure) and what does it look loke
COPD
sarcoidosis
edema
distended neck veins
large livers
What does someone with COPD look like
thin
axious
sitting forward
barrel chest
limited diaphragm movments
right sided heart failure
wheezing, ronchi
COPD PFTs
Residual volume up
Functional residual capacity up
total lung capacity up in emphysema
total lung capacity normal in bronchitis
forced expiratory volumes decreased
What's an acceptable oxygen sat for COPDer
90-91
Do you give asthma drugs to a COPDer?
long acting like spyriva and steroids
can add mucolytics too
diaphramatic & purse lip breathing are useful for ....
COPD
what is a bullectomy?
In COPD, big air sacs can be deflated so they don't rupture causing a pneumothorax
what is volume reduction surgery?
very strict criteria that most can't meet: end stage emphysema with minimal bronchitis and others
remove dead weight
what are the restrictive lung diseases
problems with volumes, remember
sarcoidosis
idiopathic pulmonay fibrosis
kyphoscoliosis
what's characteristic of restrictive lung diseases
slow onset
SOB w/ activity
can get air in and out, but problems with volumes
sarcoidosis
auto immune
scar tissue
idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis
lethal, generally
scarring and fibrosis
atelectasis
closure or collapse of alveoli
what does atelectasis look like?
Increased wob
Dyspnea
Cough
Elevation in temp
Reduction in breath sounds
Crackles
Decrease in saturation
small cell lung cancers are ____% of all lung cases
20% - slow growing and usually metastasized at diagnosis
lung cancer symptoms can often be attributed to ____ and ingored
aging
do you expect to see a chest tube after a pt has had a pneumonectomy?
No, the entire lung was removed; there i nothing to expand
what chest tube output is considered ezcessive
greater than 100c/hr
bubbling in chest tube is normal with ___________--
exhalation and cough and position changes;
the water seal is what keeps air from entering the chest
what is the cure rate for cancer
5 year survival rate
TF: laryngeal cancer is a rare cancer
true
with a total laryngectomy, is there a risk for aspiration?
No, pharynx is gone
what does a pulmonary embolism look lie
sudden onset dyspnea and tachypnea
cough, hemoptysis
pleuritic chest pain
paO2 down
O2 sat done
pulmonary embolism prophalatic
low dose heparin subQ
TF: heparin does not do anything to the existing clot; prevents additional clots and the existing clot from getting bigger