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evolution
genetic changes in population over time. Also, changes in allele frequences from what is expected in Hardy-Weinberg Law
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Charles Darwin
theologist, naturalist, HMS Beagle, looked at flora and fauna on galapagos and published "the Origin of the Species by Natural Selection". Looked at species' ability to adapt--the branching bush (divergence points and common ancestors, shared derived characteristics)
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Artificial Selection
selecting traits and breeding those that are desirable. Selectivity chosen by the breeder
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Creationism
all organisms look the same now as they did on the day they were created
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catastrophism
fossil record and sedimentary strata support that sometimes a catastrophy kills animals off
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Uniformatarianism
Charles Lyell. If it's happened before, it'll happen again, and is likely happing right now (continental drift, Pangea). (SLOW)
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Lyell
Uniformatarianism. If it's happened before, it'll happen again, and is likely happing right now (continental drift, Pangea). (SLOW)
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Malthus
populations increase exponentially (geometrically) until environmental pressures control growth.
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adaptation
ability of an organism to survive and reproduce through evolutionary changes (obtaining favorable variations or getting rid of unfavorable traits)
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competition
variation promotes better ability to obtain food, escape from predators and faster
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survival
ability to reproduce. Advantage favors individuals with the best variations. They pass these variations to offspring, so in a population over time there will be an increase of favorable traits and a decrease of unfavorable ones.
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synthetic theory of evolution
"Neo-Darwinism". Uses mutation, recombination and Mendelian genetics to explain Darwin's variations.
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Support of evolution
- fossil record (geology and palentology)
- radioactive decay to determine age of rocks and fossils
- comparative anatomy (homologous structures, analogous structures and convergent evolution)
- similar patterns of development
- biogeography (distribution of plants and animals)
- Molecular biology (serums, amino acid sequencing, DNA, etc. )
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Homologous structures
similar evolutionary structures but different functions (wings of a bird, wing of a bat, dolphin flipper and human arm)
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analogous structures
not similar but used in the same way. Wings of a bird and wings of an insect
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convergent evolution
unrelated groups adapt to common problems allowing them to converge (analogous structures)
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Wallace
Studied variation in Malaysia and Indonesia. "Natural Selection"--Overpopulation and variation
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overpopulation
most organisms produce more offspring than can possibly survive
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variation
individuals vary in morphology, physiology and behavior. Evidence of vestigal organs or parts that degenerate or are not functional
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Mimicry
an organism resembles another organism or inanimate object to protect it from predators
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Batesian mimicry
an organism resembles a harmful species even though it is edible
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Hardy-Weinberg
- 1908. Study of NON-EVOLVING populations. Look at allelic frequencies.
- p + q = 1
- p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 (frequency of phenotypes)
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diploid
2 complete sets of genetic info
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hardy-weinberg criteria
- large population
- isolation (closed gene pool)
- no mutations
- no natural selection
- random mating
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reasons for evolution
- genetic drift (isolation or small population size--elimination of an allele by random chance)
- genetic bottlenecks (environmental factors reduce population)
- gene flow (migration between populations, spreading new alleles)
- mutation
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genetic drift
isolatin or smallpopulation size--elimination of an allele by random chance
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genetic bottleneck
environmental factors reduce population, removing an allele
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gene flow
migration between populations, spreading new alleles
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founder effect
isolation of population (causing alleles to die out)
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epistasis
phenotype espression of one gene alters that of another, independantly inherited gene (labrador color)
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pleiotropy
one gene that causes many different phenotypes/pathways
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polygenic effect
two genes to produce one effect (skin color)
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co-adaptive gene complexes
collection of genes at different loci allows for expression of a phenotype.
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gaussian curve
normal bell or standard curve (Hardy weinberg) 25+50+25=100
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stabilizing curve
heterozygote advantage, favors the mean. 0+100+0=1
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directional selection
favors phenotypes at one of the extremes. Curve: 100+0+0=100 or 0+0+100=100
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disruptive selection
selects for phenotypes at the extremes--polymorphism. 50+0+50=100
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genetic polymorphism
two or more clearly different phenotypes exist in the same population of a species
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Six kingdoms of life
- Prokaryotes
- 1. Archebacteria
- 2. Eubacteria
- Eukarotes
- 3. Fungi
- 4. Animalia
- 5. Plantae
- 6. Protista
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Taxonomy
science of classifying and naming organisms. Based on a heirarchy, grouped by similarities and differences including appearance, lifestyle (habitat, ecology), origin (evolution). Binomial system developed by Linnaeus. 2-part name (genus and species). Each group is a taxon (a species or a genus or a family, etc.
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Linnaeus
came up with binomial nomenclature.
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similar characteristics of species
- structural
- functional
- developmental
- breed with one another and produce fertile offspring
- do not breed with other species
- have a common evolutionary ancestor
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taxon
each particular group in the heirarchy of taxonomy (a particular species/genus/order, etc.)
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Taxonomic classification (Order)
- Kingdom
- Phylum
- Class
- Order
- Family
- Genus
- Species
- (kids pour catsup over fat green spiders)
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systematics
the study of evolutionary relationships among organisms
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phylogeny
evolutionary history of a taxon
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ontogeny
history of development of an individual throughout it's entire life
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metazoans
multicelled animals with certain common developmental stages (zygote cleavage, morula, blastula, etc.)
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Haeckel
Ranking racism--embryos pass through each common ancestor (lower form of life) before reaching theirs. Embryos of higher form resemble the adults of lower forms. Flawed. Biogenic Law.
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von Baers
at early stages, embryos all look alike. Later, they begin to differentiate.
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molecular clocks
compare evolution of specific genes by looking at divergence of two groups based on changes in amino acid sequence
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virion
virus particle that exists in extracellular state (NOT ALIVE can't reproduce or feed itself). Just a genome in a protein coat.
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Infection
virus reproduction.
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capsid
protein coat surrounding genetic material (DNA or RNA)
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capsomeres
protein subunits that form the capsid. Usually 20 come together to form a morphological shape
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morphological shape
capsomeres arranged in a geometric pattern around the nucleic acid
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nucleocapsid
viral particle that contains the genetic material packaged in the capsid
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viral envelope
lipid bilayer surrounding capsid of some viruses.
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Parvovirus
single stranded DNA virus (Parvo), naked polyhedron. Infects small animals (with adenovirus)
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Papovavirus
double stranded DNA, naked polyhedron induces tumors, viral warts and papillomas (genital warts, HPV)
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Herpesvirus
double-stranded DNA, enveloped polyhedron (has lipid bilayer surrounding the capsid). Responsible for various diseases in humans (chicken pox, shingles, epstein barr, HSV 1 and 2); has latent forms
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Poxviruses
double stranded DNA, enveloped complex (combined helical and polyhedron)
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Picornavirus
+single stranded RNA, naked polyhedron, responsible for Polio, the common cold, hepatitis A.
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Hepatitis C
+ single stranded RNA, togavirus, enveloped polyhedron
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Paramyxoviruses
- single stranded RNA, enveloped helical causing mumps and measles
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Coronaviruses
- single stranded RNA, enveloped helical. Upper respiratory infections, (infect horses)
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Rhabdoviruses
- single stranded RNA, enveloped helical, spiked envelope, rabies
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Retroviruses
RT single stranded RNA, enveloped helical, RNA tumor viruses, HIV, Rous Sarcoma, FIV, FeLV
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Lytic infection
method of viral replication that destroys the infected cell. Cuts up genetic material to make new viruses.
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lysogenic infection
method of viral replication that does not destroy the host cell, but cuts into the DNA, putting it's own genes in. Will go lytic if threatened. Temperate phage--does not kill.
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Homo sapiens
Man who wants to know
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cladistics
how things are ordered based on last common ancestor
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3 reproductive responses of mammals
egg-layers (platypus and anteater), pouch (marsupials), placental (fetal/maternal barrier)
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Autosomes
all chromosomes except sex chromosomes
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Autosomal recessive disorder examples
- Sickle-cell (Malaria = heterozygote advantage)
- CF (Typhoid = heterozygote advantage)
- Tay-Sachs (Tuberculosis = heterozygote advantage)
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Autosomal dominant disorder example
Achondroplasia
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Polymorphism
When heterozygote looks different than either parent
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virus
cell-type specific, not alive. Capsid (helical or Icosahedron(20)) surrounding genetic material (DNA or RNA). Can be parts--hedral head, helical tail.
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HIV
envelope virus with bullet-shaped caspid and diploid RNA with RT (like a polymerase) that codes for T4 helper cells. Makes RNA into DNA, gets into nucleus, makes more and they bud out of the T4 cell to start over. Cell eventually dies.
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