Psychology

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

the view that (a) knowledge cocmes form experience via the senses, and (b) science flourishes through observation and experiment

an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind

a school of psychology that focused on how mental and behavioral processes function - how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish

historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people; used personalized methods to study personality in hopes of fostering personal growth

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors

the principle that, among the range of inherited variations, those that lead to increased reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenom

an integrated perspective that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

the branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being

a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practed by physicians who sometimes provide medical treatments as well as psychological therapy

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observations

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory

a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables; ex: Human intelligence is what an intelligence test measures

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them

the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors

all the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other. The correlation coefficient is the mathematical expression of the relationship, ranging from -1 to +1.

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. Slope = direction of relationship, amount of scatter = strength of correlation

the perception of a relationship where none exists

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or the placebo

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which is assumed to be an active agent

the condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable

the condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental condition and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable

the most frequently occurring score in a distribution

the arithmetic average of a distribution

the middle score in a distribution

the difference between the highest and the lowest scores in a distribution

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

a stasticial statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

the bushy, branching extenstions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands

a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. The action potential is generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon's membrane

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the cleft/synaptic gap

chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse

a neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction

natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure

the body's speedy, electrochemcial communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

the brain and spinal cord

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body

neural "cables" containing many axons. These bundled axons, which are part of the peripheral nervous system, connect the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs

neurons that carry incoming information from the sense receptors to the central nervous system

neurons that carry outgoing information from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands

central nervous system neurons that internally communicate and intervene between senory inputs and motor outputs

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles

the part of the peripheral nervous systme that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs. Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.

the division of the automatic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

a simple, automatic, inborn response to a sensory stimulus such as the knee-jerk response

interconnected neural cells. With experience, networks can learn, as feedback strengthens or inhibits connections that produce certain results. Computer simulations of neural networks show analagous learning

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by the endocrine glands, that are produced in one tissue and affect another

a pair of endocrine glands just above the kidneys. The adrenals secrete the hormones epinehrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline), which help to arouse the body in times of stress

the endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, it regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

tissue destruction

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a task

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that dinstinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain

a technique for revealing blood flow and therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. MRI scans show brain anatomy, fMRI scans show brain function

the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions

the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal

the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

the "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; its functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance

a doughtnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brianstem and cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions such as fear and aggression, and drives such as those for food and sex. Includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus

two lima bean-sized neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion

a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position

the portion of the cerebral cortex laying at the back of the head; includes the visual areas, which receive visual information from the opposite visual field

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying rougly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each of which receives auditory information primarily from the opposite ear

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

the area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area or to Wernicke's area

controls langugage expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually inthe left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech

controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

the brain's capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage and in experiemtns on the effects of experience on brain development

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

a condition in which the two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the connecting fibers (mostly of the corpus callosum) between them

every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes

a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes

the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; a segment of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein

the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes

twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms

twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs; they are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a natal environment

a person's charactersitic emotional reactivity and intensity

the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.

the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on anther factor (such as heredity)

the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

a random error in gene replication that leads to a change

in psychology, the biologically and socially influenced characteristics by which people define male and female

an understood rule for accepted and expected behavior

the buffer zone we like to maintain around our bodies

giving priority to one's own goals over group goals, and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications

giving priority to the goals of one's group and defining one's identity accordingly

any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy

the sex chromosome found in both men and women

the sex chromosome found only in males

the most important of the male sex hormones; both males and females have it, but additional amounts of it in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty

a set of expectations about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave

a set of expected behaviors for males and for females

one's sense of being male or female

the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

the theory that children learn from their cultures a concept of what it means to be male and female and that they adjust their behavior accordingly

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

the fertilized egg; it enters a 2 week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo

the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month

the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth

agenst, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, symptoms include noticeable facial misproportions

a baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the nipple

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulation, their interest wanes and they look away sooner

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

interpreting one's new experience in terms of one's existing schemas

adapting one's current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2-6 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic

the principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects (Piaget believed to be part of concrete operational reasoning)

in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty in taking another's point of view

people's ideas about their own and others' mental states - about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts and the behavior these might predict

a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by deficient communication, social interaction, and understanding of others' states of mind

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6/7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age

an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation

an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development

the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life

according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers

(1) a sense of one's identity and personal worth; (2) all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

the body structures that make sexual reproduction possible

nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair

the first menstrual period

one's sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles

in Erikison's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood

the time of natural cessation of menstruation

a progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and physical functioning

a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another

research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period

one's accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age

one's ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood

the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time

a theory predicting how & when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and level of fatigue

below one's threshold for conscious awareness

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time. We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference

the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation

conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret

the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. They vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmissions

the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light

the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude

the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters

a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening

the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina

the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina

the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containg the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information

the sharpness of vision

a condition in which nearby objects are seen more clearly than distant objects because distant objects focus in front of the retina

a condition in which faraway objects are seen more clearly than near objects because the image of near objects is focused behind the retina

retinal receptors that etect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond

retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.

the nerve which carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there

the central focal point inthe retina, around which the eye's cones cluster

nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement

the processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving

the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors - one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue - which when stimulated in combination can produce the perception of any color

the theory that opposing retinal processes enable color vision.

perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object

the sense or act of hearing

the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time

a tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency

the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window

a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses

the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs

in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated

in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a ton, thus enabling us to sense its pitch

hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea

hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness

a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea

the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain

the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste

the sytem for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts

the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance

the focusing of conscious awareness on a partiuclar stimulus,as in the cocktail party effect

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

the tendency for vision to dominate the other senses

an organized whole; Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes

the organization of the visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings

the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups

the ability to see objects in three dimensions although thte images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

depth cues, such as retinal disparity and convergence, that depend on the use of two eyes

a binocular cue for perceiving depth: by comparing images from the two eyeballs, the brain computes distance - the greater the disparity between the two images, the closer the object

a binocular cue for perceiving depth; the extent to which the eyes converge infward when looking at an object. The greater the inward straing, the closer the object.

depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone

an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession

perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent lightness, color, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change

in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even ivnerted visual field

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

a branch of psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use

the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input

the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis

our awareness of ourselves and our environment

periodic physiological fluctuations

the biological cock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle

rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep because the muscles are relaxed but other body systems are active

the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state

periodic, natural, reversible loss of consciousness - as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, hibernation, etc.

false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus

the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep

recurring problems in falling or staying asleep

a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times

a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings

a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during Stage 4 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep and are seldom remembered

a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind. Dreams are notable for their hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, and incongruities, and for the dreamer's delusional acceptance of the content and later difficulties remembering it

according to Freud, the rememberd story line of a dream

according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content). Freud believed that a dream's latent content functions as a safety valve

the tendency for REM sleep to increase the following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep)

a social interaction in which one person suggests to another that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur

a suggestion, made during hypnosis, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors

a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others

a chemical substance that alters perceptions and mood

the diminshing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect

the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug

a physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued

a psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions

compulsive drug craving and using

drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment

opium and its derivatives which deperess neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety

drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions

drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes

a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels

a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and ot mood and cognition

psychadelic drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

a powerful hallucinogenic drug, also known as acid

the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations

an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death, often similar to drug-induced hallucinations

the presumption that mind and body are two distinct entities that interact

the presumption that mind and body are different aspects of the same thing

a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience

learning that certain events occur together; the two events might be two stimuli, or a response and its consequences

a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditional stimulus.

the view that psychology 1) should be an objective science that 2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists agree with 1 but not with 2 today.

in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus, such as salivation when food is in the mouth

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally - naturally and automatically - triggers a response

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

the initial stage in classical conditioning; the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned sitmulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus; occurs in operant conditiong when a response is no longer reinforced

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

the tendency, once a response has been conidtioned, for stimuli similar tot he conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group or its members

a type of learning in which behavior is strenghtened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus; Skinner's term for behavior learned through classical conditioning

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

a chamber also known as a Skinner box, containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer, with attached devices to record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking. Used in operant conditioning research.

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that when presented after a repsonse, strengthens the response

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli suck as shock; this reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also know as a secondary reinforcer

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

an event that decreases the behavior that it follows

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is incentive to demonstrate it

a desire to perform a behavior for its own sake

a desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment

learning by observing others

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy

positive, constructive, helpful behavior

the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrevial of information

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

the processing of information into the memory system - for example, by extracting meaning

the retention of encoded information over time

the process of getting information out of memory storage

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

a newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active proceessing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

the conscious repitition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

the encoding of picture images

the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words

the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words

mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory

the loss of memory

retention independent of conscious recollection

memory of cats and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"

a neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

a memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before"; cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

the distruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, hear about, read about or imagined; it, along with the misnformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to it provides a quick and easy method for including items in a category

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem, as opposed to the use of heuristics, which are speedier but more error-prone

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but more error-prone than algorithms

a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; contrasts with strategy-based solutions

a tendency to search for information that confirm's one preconceptions

the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an impediment to problem solving

a tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediemtn to problem solving

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead one to ignore other relevant information

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common

the tendency to be more confident than correct - to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs and judgments

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments

the tendency for one's preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning, sometimes by making invalid conclusions seem valid, or valid conclusions seem invalid

clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning

in a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

in a language, the smalles unit that carries meaning; may be a word or part of a word

in a language, the system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others

the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning

the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language

at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language

the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words

beginning at age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements

early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram using mostly nouns and verbs and omitting auxiliary words

Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think