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Blood's 5 Functions
- 1. moves O2 and CO2, nutrients, hormones and wastes.
- 2. regulates pH and ions changes
- 3.contains blood clotting proteins, such as fibrinogen, and platelets
- 4. prevents infections with white blood cells and antibodies
- 5. regulates body temperature by absorbing and redistributing heat
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Humans have how many liters of blood?
5-6 Liters
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Blood is considered to be what kind of tissue?
connective tissue because like all connective tissues it has specialized cells,extracellular protein and a fluid ground substance.
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Blood is made up of what?
55 % plasma and 45 % cells in the average person.
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Plasma is and is made up of?
- is the fluid (water) portion of blood and proteins like albumin and antibodies
- Plasma is made up of water, solutes, and plasma proteins.
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Serum
- is the fluid portion of blood after clotting so it is lacking clotting factors, fibrinogen and cells.
- Blood tests for ions and glucose etc. are usually done on serum.
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Plasma Proteins (4 Types)
- 1. Albumin – most abundant protein. Ensures osmotic pressure (285 mOsm) and is a transport protein of fatty acids, hormones, steroids, and various drugs. The liver makes albumin.
- 2. Globulins – or antibodies, also called immunoglobulins,( IgG, IgM, IgA, IgE) and there are also transport globulins of ions, like iron, triglycerides, hormones and steroids. Plasma cells ( an activated B lymphocyte) makes antibodies
- 3. Fibrinogen – provides the basic fibrin framework for a blood clot.The liver makes fibrinogen
- .4. Enzymes, Hormones, Lipoproteins (HDL, LDL) – from a variety of cells and endocrine glands.
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Albumin
- most abundant protein. Ensures osmotic pressure (285 mOsm) and is a transport protein of fatty acids, hormones, steroids, and various drugs.
- The liver makes albumin.
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Globulins
- or antibodies, also called immunoglobulins,( IgG, IgM, IgA, IgE) and there are also transport globulins of ions, like iron, triglycerides, hormones and steroids.
- Plasma cells ( an activated B lymphocyte) makes antibodies
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Fibrinogen
- provides the basic fibrin framework for a blood clot.
- The liver makes fibrinogen.
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Red Blood Cells
RBCs,-erythrocytes –most abundant cell, flexible biconcave disc shape
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Erythrocytes?
Red Blood Cells
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The test measuring percent of RBC is called what?
hematocrit or packed cell volume, PCV.
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RBC has no _______ to get ATPs and uses what type of respiration
nucleus, mitochondria or other organelles, uses anaerobic glycolysis
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RBC are Full of what which carries what into the cells?
hemoglobin molecules, iron-containing proteins, which carries O2 and CO2 to cells
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RBCs live about how many days? and are removed by what...where?
about 120 days and are removed by phagocytes of the spleen, liver and bone marrow.
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The "heme unit" is converted into what? and goes where to be excreted as what?
to bilirubin in the bloodstream, a yellowpigment, which goes to the liver to be excreted as bile.
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Erythropoiesis
is the formation of RBCs that occurs in the red bone marrow of bones such as the ribs,pelvis and proximal femur and humerus.
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Erythropoietin
is a hormone from the kidneys that stimulates the formation of RBCs.
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reticulocyte
- Small amounts of RNA that is still in the cytoplasm.
- Immature RBC
- Reticulocytes typically stay in the bone marrow a few more days to mature so that thecytoplasm is completely red and has no RNA left.
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White Blood Cells
- These cells have nuclei and bluish cytoplasm.
- They defend the body against various bacterial, viral and toxin attacks
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Diapedesis
When WBC leave vessels and go to injured area following chemotactic stimuli.
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NLMEB
- In the normal person:
- Neutrophils>
- Lymphocytes>
- Monocytes>
- Eosinophils>
- Basophils
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Granulocytes:
Neutrophils, (Bands) Eosinophils, Basophils
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Agranulocytes:
Monocytes, and Lymphocytes.
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Neutrophils
- most abundant WBC , with ‘neutral’ staining granules.
- Puss in a wound
- Short life span, days.
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They kill microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, viruses) Often associated with bacteria.
Neutrophils
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Bands
immature neutrophils with a horseshoe shaped nucleus.
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Eosinophils
- normally just a small number in circulation, granules are red loving.
- Allergy and parasite responders.
- Phagocytic cells with granules of histamine and enzymes.
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Basophils
- normally very small number in circulation, granules are blue loving.
- Also in tissue.Granules contain histamine which dilates capillaries and heparin which prevents clots.
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Monocytes
- Largest cells, with blue cytoplasm and purple kidney bean shaped nucleus.
- Made in the bone marrow and enters the tissue and becomes a Macrophage
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Lymphocytes
most abundant agranulocyte, three known types but all look alike. T, B, NK cells
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Three types of Lymphocytes
- 1. T- cells - cell-mediated immunity, directly attacking foreign cells.
- 2. B- cells – humoral immunity, activated plasma cells make antibodies that attach to antigens
- 3. NK cells – natural killer cells that remove abnormal ‘self’ cells such as cancer cells
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Mast Cells
are made in the Bone Marrow from the basophil cell line and then go to the connective tissue.
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Lymphocytes in the fetus
are made in the bone marrow and all look exactly the same…butlooks are deceiving. Lymphocytes have many copies, clones or memory cells that last a lifetime.
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Antigens
are proteins, glycoproteins or other large molecules that generate an immune response.
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Lymphatic System is and contains?
- produces, maintains and distributes lymphocytes.
- Lymph tissue includes tonsils, lymph nodes, thymus, spleen and bone marrow.
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MALT
mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue in the GIT and respiratory tract
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Peyer’s Patch
is lymphoid tissue associated with the small intestine.
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Lymph fluid carries what and returns to what Vein?
- Lymph fluid carries lymphocytes, neutrophils, macrophages, protein, water, and solutes.
- It returns them to the left or right subclavian vein
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Thymosin
is a hormone that promotes the specialization of the T-lymphocytes.
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Innate or Non-Specific Defense
response is the same regardless of invading agent, so dirt,bacteria, fungus, virus, etc. all get the same response.
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Inflammatory Response
- local response to contain injury or infection.
- Mast cells and basophils release histamine, and attract other cells to area to destroy foreign material.
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Chemicals of non-specific Defense
local hormones and enzymes such as prostaglandins, leukotrienes, interferons,cytokines, lysozymes etc. which are alarm calls of the body to increase the defense response.
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Fever
change hypothalamus set point to increase body temperature and increase metabolism so production of lymphocytes increases and inhibit the growth of microorganism.
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Complement
- 20 types of proteins made by the liver.
- These proteins help increase the inflammatory response and stimulate many WBCs to phagocytize the foreign material and arepart of the Innate or Non-specific Defense system.
- Complement is in plasma at all times.
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Acquired or Specific Defense System:
response that is specific to the specific foreign agent.
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Specific Defense System
- 1. T lymphocytes are activated. Specific T helper cells and specific T cytotoxic cells areactivated and the T cytotoxic cells leave the lymph node and go destroy the foreign agent.T cytotoxic cells are in charge of what is called Cell-mediated immunity.
- 2. B lymphocytes become plasma cells that produce a specific antibody or immunoglobulin thatcan destroy the foreign agent. B lymphocytes are in charge of what is called Humoral immunity.
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Immune Response ABC's
(A)
- A. Inflammatory Response -innate or non-specific defense to a pathogen, the local response.
- 1. Mast cells - release histamine, prostaglandins, and other chemicals
- 2. Histamine
- 3. Neutrophils and then Macrophages go to area & release chemicals
- 4. The macrophage or dendritic cell carries the antigen to the lymph node. to attract more WBC cells.
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Immune Response ABC's
(B)
- B. Specific Defense- T Lymphocytes and B Lymphocytes are activated to a specific antigen.
- Meanwhile, at the LYMPH NODE
- Macrophage – presents the antigen using the Class II MHC protein in cell membrane.Specific T-Helper cell reacts to that specific antigen
- T- regulatory cells ( or T suppressor cells) go to inflamed area and suppress the response.
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Immune Response ABC'S
(C)
- C. Sometime later, back at the tissue…..
- T cytotoxic cells & antibodies and more complement arrive on the scene
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T Helper cell releases what and activate what 2 specifics to fight antigens?
Interleukins which activate specific T-Lymph and specific B-lymph to fight the antigen
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Interferons
chemicals released by abnormal-viral infected host cells and WBCs that activate the neutrophils, monocytes, Natural Killer cells etc. to destroy cell.
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Interleukins
- many kinds of interleukins released by T helper cells.
- T Helper cells produce interleukins that activate T helper cells, T cytotoxic cells, and
- B Lymphocytes. (Go Go) Positive feedback
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Colony Stimulating Factor
released by white blood cells to signal the bone marrow to makeand release more white blood cells, leukocytosis. Positive feedback
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Migration Inhibitory Factor
is released by white blood cells, WBCs, to keep WBC at site.Positive feedback.
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Endogenous Pyrogens
released by WBCs to change the hypothalamus set point and cause ageneral fever. Fever causes increased metabolism, faster mitosis of Lymphocytes, faster response.
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HIV
- human immunodeficiency virus targets cells with CD 4 proteins in their membranes so it is targeting T Helper cells.
- (HIV also destroysmacrophages and dendritic cells.)
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SCID – Severe Combined Immunodeficiency
these infants have a genetic defect causing alack of the Specific Immune System.
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Antibody Structure (2) Segments
- Variable segment: Binds to the specific antigen.
- Constant segment: Binding sites for macrophages, other WBC and complement.
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Types of Antibodies
- 1. IgM- 1st type made
- 2. IgG- 2nd type made
- 3. IgA – mucosal surfaces
- 4. IgE
- 5. IgD
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What is the first antibody made?
- IgM- 1st type made
- 5 antibodies joined together, pentamer, with total of 10 binding sites
- binds to all types of antigens i.e. viral, bacterial, fungal, toxins, parasites.Can not cross the placenta.
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What is the second antibody made?
- IgG- 2nd type made single antibody, monomer
- 75% of all antibodies, the most abundant type, fixes complement. binds to all types of antigens, crosses the placenta.
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What antibody is on the Mucosal Surfaces?
- IgA – mucosal surface s2 antibodies linked, dimer
- 10% of all antibodies made, in lungs, GIT, saliva and breast milkbinds and prevents all types of antigens from attaching to the mucosal surface.
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Antibody expected with allergic reaction?
IgE – allergic and type 1 hypersensitivity, anaphylaxissingle antibody, monomer 0.005% of all antibodies, usually least abundant prevents parasite infection and causes allergic response,binds to mast cells, basophils and eosinophils causing histamine release
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What antibody is a receptor on B-Lymph
IgD – monomer, is a cell receptor on B-lymphocytes,
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Primary Response
more IgM is made than IgG and memory cells seed other lymph tissue.
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Secondary Response
memory cells activate and quickly produce a large IgG response thatlasts much longer than the primary IgM response.
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Precipitation
Antibodies cover small serum soluble antigens and they drop out ofsuspension making removal easier for phagocytic cells.
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Lysis
Bacteria and other cells are lysed or destroyed by antibodies that are able to fixcomplement using the classical pathway.
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Agglutination
Antibodies bind to multiple foreign cells causing clumping. The foreigncells are no longer soluble in blood.
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Neutralization
Antibodies cover an antigen or bind to a toxin and prevent it from binding tothe host cells.
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Opsonization
Antibodies coat the antigen and the constant portion of the antibody allowsmacrophages and other WBC to more easily phagocytize the antigen.
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