A&P 233 Exam 1 Blood

• 1. moves O2 and CO2, nutrients, hormones and wastes.
• 2. regulates pH and ions changes
• 3.contains blood clotting proteins, such as fibrinogen, and platelets
• 4. prevents infections with white blood cells and antibodies
• 5. regulates body temperature by absorbing and redistributing heat

5-6 Liters

connective tissue because like all connective tissues it has specialized cells,extracellular protein and a fluid ground substance.

 55 % plasma and 45 % cells in the average person.

• is the fluid (water) portion of blood and proteins like albumin and antibodies
• Plasma is made up of water, solutes, and plasma proteins.

• is the fluid portion of blood after clotting so it is lacking clotting factors, fibrinogen and cells.
• Blood tests for ions and glucose etc. are usually done on serum.

• 1. Albumin – most abundant protein. Ensures osmotic pressure (285 mOsm) and is a transport protein of fatty acids, hormones, steroids, and various drugs. The liver makes albumin.
• 2. Globulins – or antibodies, also called immunoglobulins,( IgG, IgM, IgA, IgE) and there are also transport globulins of ions, like iron, triglycerides, hormones and steroids. Plasma cells ( an activated B lymphocyte) makes antibodies
• 3. Fibrinogen – provides the basic fibrin framework for a blood clot.The liver makes fibrinogen
• .4. Enzymes, Hormones, Lipoproteins (HDL, LDL) – from a variety of cells and endocrine glands.

• most abundant protein. Ensures osmotic pressure (285 mOsm) and is a transport protein of fatty acids, hormones, steroids, and various drugs.
• The liver makes albumin.

• or antibodies, also called immunoglobulins,( IgG, IgM, IgA, IgE) and there are also transport globulins of ions, like iron, triglycerides, hormones and steroids.
• Plasma cells ( an activated B lymphocyte) makes antibodies

• provides the basic fibrin framework for a blood clot.
• The liver makes fibrinogen.

RBCs,-erythrocytes –most abundant cell, flexible biconcave disc shape

Red Blood Cells

hematocrit or packed cell volume, PCV.

nucleus, mitochondria or other organelles, uses anaerobic glycolysis

hemoglobin molecules, iron-containing proteins, which carries O2 and CO2 to cells

about 120 days and are removed by phagocytes of the spleen, liver and bone marrow.

to bilirubin in the bloodstream, a yellowpigment, which goes to the liver to be excreted as bile.

is the formation of RBCs that occurs in the red bone marrow of bones such as the ribs,pelvis and proximal femur and humerus.

is a hormone from the kidneys that stimulates the formation of RBCs.

• Small amounts of RNA that is still in the cytoplasm.
• Immature RBC
• Reticulocytes typically stay in the bone marrow a few more days to mature so that thecytoplasm is completely red and has no RNA left.

• These cells have nuclei and bluish cytoplasm.
• They defend the body against various bacterial, viral and toxin attacks

When WBC leave vessels and go to injured area following chemotactic stimuli.

• In the normal person:
• Neutrophils>
• Lymphocytes>
• Monocytes>
• Eosinophils>
• Basophils

Neutrophils, (Bands) Eosinophils, Basophils

Monocytes, and Lymphocytes.

• most abundant WBC , with ‘neutral’ staining granules.
• Puss in a wound
• Short life span, days.

Neutrophils

immature neutrophils with a horseshoe shaped nucleus.

• normally just a small number in circulation, granules are red loving.
• Allergy and parasite responders.
• Phagocytic cells with granules of histamine and enzymes.

• normally very small number in circulation, granules are blue loving.
• Also in tissue.Granules contain histamine which dilates capillaries and heparin which prevents clots.

• Largest cells, with blue cytoplasm and purple kidney bean shaped nucleus.
• Made in the bone marrow and enters the tissue and becomes a Macrophage

most abundant agranulocyte, three known types but all look alike. T, B, NK cells

• 1. T- cells - cell-mediated immunity, directly attacking foreign cells.
• 2. B- cells – humoral immunity, activated plasma cells make antibodies that attach to antigens
• 3. NK cells – natural killer cells that remove abnormal ‘self’ cells such as cancer cells

are made in the Bone Marrow from the basophil cell line and then go to the connective tissue.

are made in the bone marrow and all look exactly the same…butlooks are deceiving. Lymphocytes have many copies, clones or memory cells that last a lifetime.

are proteins, glycoproteins or other large molecules that generate an immune response.

• produces, maintains and distributes lymphocytes.
• Lymph tissue includes tonsils, lymph nodes, thymus, spleen and bone marrow.

mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue in the GIT and respiratory tract

is lymphoid tissue associated with the small intestine.

• Lymph fluid carries lymphocytes, neutrophils, macrophages, protein, water, and solutes.
• It returns them to the left or right subclavian vein

is a hormone that promotes the specialization of the T-lymphocytes.

response is the same regardless of invading agent, so dirt,bacteria, fungus, virus, etc. all get the same response.

• local response to contain injury or infection.
• Mast cells and basophils release histamine, and attract other cells to area to destroy foreign material.

local hormones and enzymes such as prostaglandins, leukotrienes, interferons,cytokines, lysozymes etc. which are alarm calls of the body to increase the defense response.

change hypothalamus set point to increase body temperature and increase metabolism so production of lymphocytes increases and inhibit the growth of microorganism.

• 20 types of proteins made by the liver.
• These proteins help increase the inflammatory response and stimulate many WBCs to phagocytize the foreign material and arepart of the Innate or Non-specific Defense system.
• Complement is in plasma at all times.

response that is specific to the specific foreign agent.

• 1. T lymphocytes are activated. Specific T helper cells and specific T cytotoxic cells areactivated and the T cytotoxic cells leave the lymph node and go destroy the foreign agent.T cytotoxic cells are in charge of what is called Cell-mediated immunity.
• 2. B lymphocytes become plasma cells that produce a specific antibody or immunoglobulin thatcan destroy the foreign agent. B lymphocytes are in charge of what is called Humoral immunity.

• A. Inflammatory Response -innate or non-specific defense to a pathogen, the local response.
• 1. Mast cells - release histamine, prostaglandins, and other chemicals
• 2. Histamine
• 3. Neutrophils and then Macrophages go to area & release chemicals
• 4. The macrophage or dendritic cell carries the antigen to the lymph node. to attract more WBC cells.

• B. Specific Defense- T Lymphocytes and B Lymphocytes are activated to a specific antigen.
•              Meanwhile, at the LYMPH NODE
• Macrophage – presents the antigen using the Class II MHC protein in cell membrane.Specific T-Helper cell reacts to that specific antigen
• T- regulatory cells ( or T suppressor cells) go to inflamed area and suppress the response.

• C. Sometime later, back at the tissue…..
• T cytotoxic cells & antibodies and more complement arrive on the scene

Interleukins which activate specific T-Lymph and specific B-lymph to fight the antigen

chemicals released by abnormal-viral infected host cells and WBCs that activate the neutrophils, monocytes, Natural Killer cells etc. to destroy cell.

• many kinds of interleukins released by T helper cells.
• T Helper cells produce interleukins that activate T helper cells, T cytotoxic cells, and
• B Lymphocytes. (Go Go) Positive feedback

released by white blood cells to signal the bone marrow to makeand release more white blood cells, leukocytosis. Positive feedback

is released by white blood cells, WBCs, to keep WBC at site.Positive feedback.

released by WBCs to change the hypothalamus set point and cause ageneral fever. Fever causes increased metabolism, faster mitosis of Lymphocytes, faster response.

• human immunodeficiency virus targets cells with CD 4 proteins in their membranes so it is targeting T Helper cells.
• (HIV also destroysmacrophages and dendritic cells.)

these infants have a genetic defect causing alack of the Specific Immune System.

• Variable segment: Binds to the specific antigen.
• Constant segment: Binding sites for macrophages, other WBC and complement.

• 1. IgM- 1st type made
• 2. IgG- 2nd type made
• 3. IgA – mucosal surfaces
• 4. IgE
• 5. IgD

• IgM- 1st type made
• 5 antibodies joined together, pentamer, with total of 10 binding sites
• binds to all types of antigens i.e. viral, bacterial, fungal, toxins, parasites.Can not cross the placenta.

• IgG- 2nd type made single antibody, monomer
• 75% of all antibodies, the most abundant type, fixes complement. binds to all types of antigens, crosses the placenta.

• IgA – mucosal surface s2 antibodies linked, dimer
• 10% of all antibodies made, in lungs, GIT, saliva and breast milkbinds and prevents all types of antigens from attaching to the mucosal surface.

IgE – allergic and type 1 hypersensitivity, anaphylaxissingle antibody, monomer 0.005% of all antibodies, usually least abundant prevents parasite infection and causes allergic response,binds to mast cells, basophils and eosinophils causing histamine release

IgD – monomer, is a cell receptor on B-lymphocytes,

more IgM is made than IgG and memory cells seed other lymph tissue.

memory cells activate and quickly produce a large IgG response thatlasts much longer than the primary IgM response.

Antibodies cover small serum soluble antigens and they drop out ofsuspension making removal easier for phagocytic cells.

Bacteria and other cells are lysed or destroyed by antibodies that are able to fixcomplement using the classical pathway.

Antibodies bind to multiple foreign cells causing clumping. The foreigncells are no longer soluble in blood.

Antibodies cover an antigen or bind to a toxin and prevent it from binding tothe host cells.

Antibodies coat the antigen and the constant portion of the antibody allowsmacrophages and other WBC to more easily phagocytize the antigen.