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Epithelial tissue provides ___________________ by covering ______- and _______ surfaces from abrasion, dehydration, and destruction by chemical or biological agents.
- physical protection
- exposed
- internal
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Epithelia are ______, that is they lack blood vessels.
avascular
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Epithelial cells must obtain nutrients by ____ or _____- across either the exposed or the attached epithelial surface.
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Connective tissue provides a _______________ that stabilizes the relative positions of the other tissue types
structural framework
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Endocrine glands produce ___________ _______ which are released directly into the _________ ________ ______
- endocrine secretions
- surrounding interstitial fluid
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Glands are directly _______ or ________ of the epithelium
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Exocrine glands produce _____ _________ which are discharged onto an ________ ________
- exocrine secretions
- epithelial surface
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Modes of Glandular Secretion
Merocrine secretion- released by exocytosis; most common
Apocrine secretion- the apical portion of the cytoplasm becomes packed with secretory vesicles and is then shed
Holocrine secretion- the cell becomes filled and bursts
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Serous glands secrete
a watery solution that contains enzymes.
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Mucous glands secrete
mucins that hydrate to form mucus.
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Mixed exocrine glands contain
more than one type of gland cell and my produce two different exocrine secretions, one serous and the other mucous
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In epithelia that have independent, scattered gland cels, the individual secretory cells are called
unicellular glands
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Muticellular glands include ________ epithelia and _________ of gland cells that produce exocrine or endocrine secretions
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Connective Tissue Proper Cell Populations
- Fibroblasts
- Fibrocytes
- Adipocytes
- Mesenchymal cells
- Macrophages
- Mast cells
- Lymphocytes
- Microphages
- Melenocytes
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Fibroblasts
most common cell in connective tissues, always present
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Fibrocytes
spindle-shaped cells that maintain the connective tissue fibers of connective tissue proper
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Mesenchymal cells
stem cells. Respond to local injury or infection by dividing to produce daughter cells that differenctiate into fibroblasts, macrophages, or other connective tissue cells
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Macrophages
large amoeboid cells, engulf damaged cells or pathogents that enter the tissue
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Mast cells
common near blood vessels, filled with histmine and heparin that stimulate inflammation after injury or infection
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Lymphocytes
migrate throughout the body, increase in number wherever tissue damage occurs.
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Microphages
phagocytic blood cells that are attracted by chemicals released by macrophages and mast cells after injury
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Melanocytes
synthesize and store the brown pigment melanin
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Three types of fibers in connective tissue:
- Collagen fibers
- Reticular fibers
- Elastic fibers
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Collagen fibers
long, straight, and unbranched, most common, bundled to look like rope, make up tendons and ligaments
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Reticular fibers
interwoven network, stroma, stabilizes organs and organs blood vessels, nerves, and other structures
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Elastic fibers
branched and wavy, form elastic ligaments that are rare
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Embryonic connective tissues or ______________ are the first connective tisues to appear in a developing embryo. _____________ is a loose connective tissue found in many parts of the embry, including the ________
- Mesenchyme
- Mucous connective tissue
- umbilical cord
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Cartilage is a
firm gel that contains polysacharide derivatives called chondrotin sulfates
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Carilage cells are called
chorodrocytes
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Chondrocytes occupy small chambers known as
lacunae
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Cartilage is generally set apart from surrounding tissues by ________
perichondrium
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The perichondrium has two layers
- outter fibrous
- inner cellular
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Cartilage grows by two mechanisms
- interstitial growth
- appositional growth
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Instertitial growth
inlarges the cartilage from within
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appositional growth
adds new layers of cartilage to the surface
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Types of Cartilage
- Hyaline cartilage
- Elastic
- Fibrocartilage
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The ________ assists in the attachement of a bone to surrounding tissues and to associated tendons and ligaments
periosteum
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Bone has a __________ which allows it to heal faster than cartilage
direct blood supply
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During inflammation:
Mast cells release chemicals which stimulate inflammation
- blood flow increases
- increased vessel permeability
- pain
- temperature rises
- incrased oxygen and nutrients
- increased phagocytosis
- removal of toxins and wastes
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Layers of skin
- Stratum corneum
- Stratum lucidum
- Stratum granulosum
- Stratum spinosum
- Stratum basale
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Basal Cell Carcinoma
a cancer that originates in the stratum basale, is the most common skin cancer. metastasis never occurs
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Squamous cell carcinomas
almost totally restricted to sun exposed areas of skin, metastasis seldomly occurs
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malignant melanomas
metastasize through the lymphatic system, very dangerous
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ABCD of skin cancer
- Asymmetry
- Border
- Color
- Diameter
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Skin repair
- 1.bleeding
- 2. blood clot, scab, formsat the surface
- 3. cells of the stratum basale undergo rapid devision, circulation enhances
- 4. scar tissue forms
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_________ produce new bone matrix in __________
- Osteoblasts
- ossification or osteogenesis
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The basic functional unit of mature compact bone is the ______
osteon
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Compact bone contains
- parallel osteons
- spongy bone
- trabeculae
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The central canal conatins one or more _______ that carry blood to and from the osteon
blood vessels
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perforating canals extend ___________ to the surface; blood vessel in these canals supply blood to the osteons _______ in the bone and to tissues of the _________ cavity
- perpendicular
- deeper
- medullary
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The superficial layer of compact bone that covers all bones is wrapped by
periosteum
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THe endosteum, an incomplete cellular layer, lines hte ________
medullary cavity
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Bones form through __________ and they enlarge through _______________ growth and ______
- ossification
- appositional growth
- remodeling
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Formation of Bone:
1. Cartilage enlarges, chondrocytes near the center of the shaft enlarge, the matrix is reduced to a series of small struts that calcify, chondrocytes die and disintegrate, leaving cavities within the cartilage
2. Blood vessels grow around cartilage, cells of perichondrium convert ot osteoblasts, cartilage then becomes unsheathed in a superficial layer of bone
3. Blood vessels penetrate cartilage, spongy bone is produced, bone formation spreads toward both ends of shaft
4. remodeling occurs, growth continues, creates medullary cavity, shaft thickens, increases in length and diameter
5. cappilaries and osteoblasts migrate into the epiphysis, creating secondary ossification centers
6. epiphyses filled iwth spongy bones,
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Fracture healing:
- 1. fracture hematoma stops bleeding
- 2. internal callus forms as a network of spongy bone unites the inner edges, and an external callus of cartilage and bone stabilizes the outer edges
- 3. The cartilage of the external callus is replaced by bone, spongy bone unites the broken ends, dead bone has been replaced
- 4. healed
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Transverse fractures
break a bone shaft across its long axis
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Desplaced fracture
produce new and abnormal bone arrangements
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Nondisplaced fracture
retain the normal alaignment of the bones or fragments
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Compression fractures
occur in vertebrea
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Spiral fractures
twisting stresses
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Epiphyseal fractures
occurs where the bone matrix is undergoing calcification and chondrocytes are dying
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Comminuted fractures
shattered
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Greenstick fracture
only one side of the shaft is broken, occurs in children
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Colles fracture
a break in the distal portion of the radius, result of cushioning a fall
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A potts fracture
occurs at the ankle
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Achondroplasia
a disorder of bone growth that causes the most common type of dwarfism
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Bone marrow transplant
transferring healthy bone marrow stem cells from one person into another, replacing bone marrow that is either dysfunctional or has been destroyed by chemotherapy or radiation
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bone mineral density test (BMD)
a test to predict the risk of bone fractures by measuring how much calciuma nd other types of minerals are present in the patients bones
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bone scan
A nuclear scanning test that indentifies new areas of bone growth or breakdown
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closed reduction
thre correction of a bone fracture by anipulation without incision into the skin
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Dual energy x-ray absorptiometry (DEXA)
procedure that uses a very small amounts of radiation to measure changes in bone density as small as 1 percent; the test monitors bone density in osteoporosis and osteopenia
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open reduction
the correction of a bone fracture by making an incision into the skin and rejoining the fracture bone parts, often by mechanical means such as a rod, plate, or screw
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Ortheopedics
the branch of medicine dealing with the correction of deformities of bones or muscles
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osteogenesis imperfecta
an inherited disorder characterized by extremem fragillity of the bones; also called brittle bone disease
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osteomyelitis
an acute or chronic bone infection
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osteopetrosis
a rare hereditary bone disorder in which the bones become overly dense; it presents in one of three forms: osteopetrosis tarda, osteopetrosis congenita, and "marble bone" disease
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osteosarcoma:
A type of cancer that starts in the bones
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paget's disease
a chronic disorder that can result in enjarged and misshapen bones due to abnormal bone destruction and regrowth
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traction
the application of a sustained pull on a limb or muscle in order to maintain the position of a fracture bone until healing occurs or to correct a deformity
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Types of movement
- gliding (linear)
- angular
- rotation
- monoaxial
- biaxial
- triaxial
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Specail movements
- Inversion- twisting movement of the foot
- Dorsiflection - dig in your heel
- Opposition- movement of thumb toward the surface of palm
- Protraction- moving a body part anteriorly in the horizontal plane
- Elevation
- Lateral flection- vertebra bends to the side
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