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The Late Roman Empire
I. The Reforms of Diocletian and Constantine
a. Political Reforms
i. Diocletian (284-305)
1. Prominent military leader who became emperor after murder of emperor Numerian by praetorian prefect
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a. Political Reforms
i. Diocletian (284-305)
--2. Reforms: provinces
- a. Created new administrative system for restructured empire
- -----. # of provinces increased to almost one hundred by creating smaller districts superintended by more officials
- 1. Provinces in turn grouped into twelve dioceses, each headed by a vicara. Twelve dioceses grouped into four prefectures
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a. Political Reforms
i. Diocletian (284-305)
--2. Reforms: division
- a. Entire Roman empire divided into two parts, east and
- west .
- -- Each part contained two prefectures and was ruled by
- an “Augustus”
- 1. Diocletian ruled east
- 2. Maximian, a strong military commander, the west ii. Each “Augustus” assisted by chief lieutenant or
- “vice-emperor” called a "Caesar” who would succeed to the position of Augustus
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a. Political Reforms
i. Diocletian (284-305)
--3. Reforms: new system
- c. NEW SYSTEM CALLED THE TETRARCHY (rule by four)
- i. Diocletian believed one man was incapable of ruling enormous empire
- 1. Each of two tetra resided in different administrative capital
- 2. Despite the rule of four, Diocletian’s military seniority enabled him to claim a higher status and hold ultimate authority
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After Diocletian's retirement in __, a new struggle for power ensued:
- 305
- a. Victory of Constantine in 312= control of entire west
- i. Still continued to share imperial authority with Licinius, a fellow emperor
- 1. In 324, Constantine’s army defeated Licinius’ forces--> Constantine as sole ruler
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a. Political Reforms
ii. Constantine
continued and expanded autocratic policies of Diocletian
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Under Diocletian and constantine:
- 1. Roman Empire was transformed into system in which emperor had far more personal power than Augustus, Trajan, etc.
- a. Emperor clothed in jeweled robes of gold and bluei. Seen as divinely sanctioned monarch whose will was the law
- b. Government officials= humble servants required to kneel before and kiss robe of emperor
- c. Senate lost all power and as just city council of Rome
- 2. Greatly strengthened and enlarged the administrative bureaucracies of Roman Empire
- a. Civil and military bureaucracies sharply separated
- i. Each contained hierarchy of officials who exercised control at different levels
- 1. Emperor presided over both hierarchies and served as only link between them
- a. New titles of mobility were instituted to dignify holders of positions in civil and military bureaucracies
- i. Ilustres
- ii. Illustrissimi
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Military Reforms of Diocletian and Constantine
- i. Army-->400, 000 men, including Germans
- ii. By end of Constantine’s reign, new organization of army
- 1. Military forces divided into two:
- a. Garrison troops on frontiers and first line of defense against invaders
- b. Mobile units located behind frontier but could be quickly moved to support frontier troops when borders threatened
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Diocletian and Constantine: Economic and Social Trends
- i. Reforms greatly enlarged two institutions—army and civil service—that drained public funds
- 1. More revenues needed to pay for military and bureaucracy
- a. Population not growing, so tax could not expand
- 2. Diocletian and Constantine devised new economic and social policies to deal with financial burdens
- a. Based on coercion and loss of individual freedom
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Economic/ Social Trends
Diocletian
- 1. To stop inflation, in 301, he resorted to issuing an edict that established maximum wages and prices for the entire empire
- a. Applied mostly in east, but despite severe penalties, it was largely unenforceable
- 2. Decline in coins of circulation-->collect taxes and make government payments in produce
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Economic and Social Trends
Constantine
Introduced new gold coin, the solidus, and new silver coins that circulated during his reign
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Economic and Social Trends
3rd Century
1. City councils declining
- a. Curiales (city councilors) forced to pay expenses out of own pocket when taxes they collected were
- insufficientà wealth no longer wanted to serve in these positions
- i. D and C responded by issuing edicts that forced the rich to continue posts as curiales, making it hereditary position
- 1. Some curiales realized fortunes would be wiped out and fled cities to escape imperial bureaucracy
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Economic and Social Trends
Coercion
- 1. Form underlying basis for numerous occupations in Late Roman Empire
- a. To maintain tax base and keep empire going despite labor shortage, emperors issued edicts that forced people to remain in designated vocations
- i. Jobs= hereditary
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Economic/ Social Trends
Coloni
- vi. Coloni—free tenant farmers
- 1. Decline--> bound to land
- a. Large landowners took advantage of depressed agricultural conditions to enlarge estates
- i. Free tenant farmers depended on them and discovered that landlords obtained gov’t cooperation in attaching coloni to estates to guarantee labor
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Economic and Social Trends
Lower class and Taxes
- 1. Enormous taxes due to exemption of upper class from paying or evading through bribery
- a. Undermined lower-class support for the regime
- i. Visigoths= liberators
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Constantine's Building Program
- i. Rome no longer imperial administrative center due to distance; symbolic capital
- ii. 324-330: Constantine engaged in construction of new capital city in east, called Constantinople
- 1. Developed for defensive regions
- a. Strategic location
- 2. Officially dedicated on May 11, 330 and decked with palaces, amphitheater, and forum
- iii. In Rome, he built public baths and triumphal Arch of Constantine
- iv. First emperor to build churches for Christians in Rome, including the first basilica dedicated to St. Peter
- 1. Also gave grants to Christian leaders in Rome, enabling more noticeable role in city
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Empire's New Religion
- a. Christianity flourished with help of Constantine
- b. Constantine
- i. Support began in 312, when he was about to fight a battle against Maxentius at the Milvian Bridge
- 1. Saw a vision of a Christina cross with the words, “In this sign, you will conquer”
- a. Won= converted
- ii. 313= Edict of Milan
- 1. Officially tolerated existence of Christianity
- c. After him, all emperors, except Julian (tried to restore Greco-Roman religion), were Christian
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Theodosius I "the Great"
- 1. Christianity made official religion
- a. Christian leaders used influence and power to outlaw pagan practices
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Christian Church system of gov't
- d. Christian Church developed system of government (4th century) based on territorial plan borrowed from Roman administration
- i. Bishop headed dioceses
- 1. Bishoprics under archbishop
- 2. Bishops of Jerusalem, Rome, Alexandria, Antioch important due to belief that original apostles founded their cities
- ii. Heresy caused this
- 1. With rise came contradictions of doctrines, which also became political issues, creating political factions that warred
- a. Teaching different from “catholic” beliefs of church
- i. Ex: Jesus’ nature: divine vs. human
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Arianism
- 2. Arianism
- a. Arius, priest from Alexandria
- b. Jesus human and truly Godc. Constantine was disturbed and called first ecumenical council of church
- i. Council of Nicaea in 325 Nicene Creed
- 1. Jesus is same substance as God
- 2. Did not end controversy
- a. Persisted and adopted by Germanic Goths
- i. This created important role for Roman emperor in Church
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III. The End of the Western Empire
a. Summary:
- i. Constantine reunited Roman Empire and restored order
- ii. Death--> division as fighting between Roman armies backing rival emperors
- iii. 395: west and east= two independent states
- 1. East: intact under Roman emperor in Constantinople
- 2. West: collapsed and replaced by various Germanic kingdoms
- a. Causes:
- i. Power struggles
- ii. Aristocratic flip-floppers for greater security
- iii. Military failures
- iv. German invasions
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The End of the Western Empire
Germans
- i. Rhine and Danube= boundary separating people of north (Germans= uncivilized barbarians)
- 1. Reality: Different tribes and groups that frequently changed
- a. Sometimes formed larger confederations under strong warrior leaders
- ii. Herders and farmers and traded with people along Rome’s northern frontiers
- 1. Proximity--> some Romanization
- a. Familiar with Roman coins and gained knowledge of Latin language and Roman military matters
- iii. Romans in contact with them
- 1. Hired them to fight other Germanic tribes that threatened Rome or fight for Rome
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The End of the Western Empire
German Migrations
- i. Huns caused migration
- 1. Visigoths asked (376) Roman Emperor Valens to allow them to cross Danube in return for providing troops
- a. Mistreatment of them by Romans
- i. Revolt
- 1. 378: Valens and 40,000 fought--> emperor and 2/3 of army killed
- b. Theodosius resettled Visigoths and incorporated them into army
- i. Some= army leaders
- ii. 4th century: Roman policy allowed army units to be composed entirely of Germanic tribes called federates, or allies of Rome
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The End of the Western Empire
German Threat and Alaric
- i. Existence of federates= threat
- ii. Alaric, leader of Visigoths
- 1. 395-401: moved through Balkans and into Italy, seeking food and cash--> refused-->besieged city, causing senate to pay 5000 pounds of gold and 30000 pounds of silver for his withdrawal
- 2. Two years later, Alaric wanted part of n. Italy and sacked Rome for three days
- a. Alaric died-->Visigothic followers left and moved into Spain and s. Gaul as Roman allies
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The End of the Western Empire
Other Germanic tribes settling
Settlement
1.Burgundians in Southern Gaul
2.Franks in northern Gaul
- 3. Vandals, under Gaiseric seized Carthage, the capital
- of N. Africa, in 439
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- ii. With settlements of Germanic tribes came withdrawal
- of Roman forces from provinces, reducing central authority of emperors
- 1. 410: Honorius recalled last Roman legions from
- Britain, which led to Saxon expansion of control in Britain
- a, Another decad--> both Spain and Gaul free of imperial rule
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End of hte Western Empire
Role of Masters of Soldiers
- i. Mid- fifth century: western provinces of Roman Empire taken over by Germanic people who created independent kingdoms
- ii. At the same time, in Rome, some imperial authority remained in Rome
- 1. Real power behind throne rested in hands of important military officials called Masters of the Soldiers
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End of the W. Empire
Masters of the Soldiers
- 1. Controlled government, Dominated imperial court
- 2. Three most prominent
- a. Stilicho
- i. German
- ii. Killed by Emperor Honorius
- b. Aetius
- i. Roman
- ii. Killed by Emperor Valentinian, who was later assassinated by group of his German bodyguards, who sought to avenge their betrayed leader
- c. Ricimer
- i. German
- ii. Natural death
- 3. All three propped up emperors to maintain fiction of imperial rule, but also cooperated with Germans to maintain power
- 4. Even they weren’t safe in bloody world of fifth century Roman political life
- 5. Constant infighting added to instability of imperial rule
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End of W. Empire
- Role of Masters of the Soldiers
---Mid fifth century
- iv. Mid fifth- century: imperial authority in west operated only in Italy and some of Gaul
- 1. Rome not safe
- 2. 455: Rome broke treaty with Gaiseric, leader of the Vandalsa. Gaisaric sacked Rome (undefended)
- 3. 476: Odoacer, new Master of the Soldiers, (German), deposed Roman emperor, the boy Romulus Augustulus
- a. Romulus’ deposition = end of Roman empire
- b. Empire remained as Odoacer presented himself as German king obedient in theory to the Roman emperor Zeno of Constantinople
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End of W. Empire
- Role of Masters of the Soldiers
---End of fifth century
- v. By the end of the fifth century, Roman imperial authority in west had ceased
- 1. Intellectual, governmental, and cultural traditions lived on in Germanic kingdoms
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