Anthro 33

• African American Vernacular English(sometimes called Ebonics)
• -non-standard dialect
• -is not:
• 1.slang
• 2.bad grammar
• 3.swearing

• -Quotative markers and social differentiation used to see who is part of the group(central) and who is not(peripheral)
• -Article: "Exclusion in girls peer groups" by Goodwin
• -Central members are likely to talk negatively about peripheral members
• -Naming girls “tag alongs” because they don’t fully belong to the group (peripheral member)
• -

a sequence of two utterances, next to one another, and produced by two different speakers.

Ex: compliments -> thanks. "Conversationally thought to be next to one another"

• -Based around shared participation in practices and activities
• -Group is together because they do activities together
• -joint/mutual engagement
• -identity practices (not categories)
• -bottom-up/emic 
• Ex.Clubs, cliques

Architecture: specific words to describe architecture, that only an architect could understand, but still within the English language

• 1. Protagonist 
• -Usually the child
• -Their actions and stories are the ones commented on
• -Main character
• -Vulnerable
• 2. Introducer
• -Usually the mom
• -introduces the topic
• 3.Primary recipient
• -Gets to evaluate and is thought of as “family judge”
• -Designated by introducer
• -Usually the father
• 4. The Problematizer
• -One who calls out someone for his/her actions or stories
• -Supports ‘Father Knows Best’ dynamic because father can usually be the one who deems actions/stories correct or not
• *Gender relations are power relations
• Article: "Father knows Best" by Ochs and Taylor

• 1. Droppng final "s' for:
• -3rd person singular (she walk)
• -plurals (four girl)
• -possessives (the teacher clerk)
• 2. Verb conjugations
• -tense: when the action takes place
• -aspect: how the action takes place 
• (habitual, one; completed/ in progress)
• -"Every morning I sits and rides": Habitual: use of "s"
• -"Bruce be runnin": Habitual: use of "be"
• -"She bin runnin": Habitual: use of "bin"
• -"I den finished that already":Completed: use of "den"
• -"They finna do something": Future: use of "finna"

• - reduction of word-final consonant clusters (han')
• - realization of final ng in geruns (walkin')
• - realization of voiceless th (baf for bath)
• - metathesis of transposition of adjacent consonants (aks for ask)
• - stress on first rather than second syllable (POleece)

• - removing is and are (he tall)
• - use of be (he be walkin')
• - use of be done (she be done had her baby)
• - use of come to express speaker's indignation about an action or event (He come walkin in here..)

• -"expressive" African character
• -symbol of resistance to slavery & oppression,
• -an indicator of a slave "mentality" or consciousness
• -dynamic and always changing
• -verbal dexterity is critical

• 1. it is the language of education, therefore status
• 2. it can signal the rejection of membership in the African American community
• 3. symbolic of historical oppression

Mikhail Bakhtin

• -means taking a word from one context and using it in another context while pulling everything that comes with that word (the baggage, context).
• -An example is the word “dude”. This word is associated with surfers, a relaxedcontext, when people use it they bring along with it the context of relaxed andyoung flavor
• -Ex. "ill be back" or "call me maybe"
• -Intertextuality: Quoting from a specific source but using a word with a certain connotation and use in a certain manner

• 1. Emic: A description of a behavor or belief, by someone in the group 
• -someone that is apart of that culture
• 2. Etic: A description of a behavor or belief, by the researcher
• -more of an oberserver, culturally neutral

• -Standard language: indexes high prestige
• -Nonstandard: indexes low prestige, marginalized, rural (often uneducated) and negative characteristics are applied to their language
• -Girls in gangs take pride in knowing Spanish better than those in other gangs (shows that they are really Mexican)
• Ex. Surenas
• -Surenas spoke and identified with spanish
• -nortenas spoke english, were more bicultural

• -Language and Gender slides
• -Syntactic erasure: defaulting to male pronoun (when not obvious); using ‘he’ as neutral pronoun in writing
• -Grammatical erasure: using the male pronoun for mixed-sex groups (Ex. Ellos in spanish)

• 1.Standard: Raise families, take care of husband gentle, compassionate
• 2.Non-mainstream: doing oppsitional identity
• Ex. Homegirls ch. 5 discusses non-mainstream femininity; ‘Macha’ girls refuse gender norms and values and wear baggy clothes, run the household, fight, protect the street, etc…; wear makeup to be more Mexican or to show that they are ready to fight, not solely as a way to make themselves more attractive

• -Author: Goodwin
• -discusses how girls are thought of being caring and sweet, but in reality they are verbally and mentally aggressive

• -Gender as performance: “doing” rather than “being” 
• -Not sex /innate, gender is socially constructed
• -Butler said "gender is drag": take the gender that we assume we are and enact it

-men and women learn different ways of speaking and interpret each others’ speech according to their own norms (Tannen and others)

• 2 types of linguistic gender differences
• 1. Identifying the gender of a referent
• -He/she, man/woman, etc.
• 2. Speaker’s gender (how men and woman speak)
• -e.g. “so lovely” vs. “fucking awesome”
• *Sex exclusive vs. sex preferential
• *REFERENT NEEDS TO BE PROPERLY DEFINED

• -a set of dispositions to act and react in certain ways, which are socialized and become embodied and ingrained(tendencies, preferences, defaults)
• -Much that is “natural” or “right” is actually culturally based
•      -Personal space; food sharing; cleanliness; marriage rules; childcare, etc.
•      -Feminine/masculine behavior

• -hegemonic norm: the group with status/power
• -Hegemonic is unmarked: normal; expected; standard
• -Nonhegemonic is “marked”: different (sometimes deviant)
• -Hegemonic = white, male heterosexual (middle class)

• -Performing positive identity practices identify part of group 
• -Performing negative identity practices, distance yourself from group
• -Indexicality: Using a semiotic (signs and symbols) resource to indicate a social position , group affiliation, stance or allignment(relative to topic or interlocutor, person who takes part in a conversation)

• -A community where all people may not know each other, but share an idea belonging to a collective (shared knowledge or values)
• -shared experience and language on a larger scale
• Ex. Mass media, newspaper, radio, internet 
• -Vertical Communication: info is being talked about, being distributed, one-way communication
• -Lateral communication: communication of the listeners, recievers
• Ex. Anderson's notion of the imagined community is useful
• -provides a model of a community where members may not all know one another but all sharean idea of belonging to a collectivity

• -using a semiotic (signs an symbols) resource to indicate social postion, group afiliation, stance or alignment (relative to topic or interlocuter)
• -signs are arbitrary(random)
• -signs vary across culture
• -Direct indexicality: more internal and description
• -Indirect indexicality: indexes features which are associated with a particular group
• Ex. women use more polite forms, therefore politeness indirectly indexes femininity
• indexing toughness----masculinity

Misconception between korean and african americans

• -International Phonetic Alphabet 
• -writing words the way they sound
• Ex. This, Through

• -English is mutually intelligible
• -American English vs British English are same language different dialects

• 1.Phonetics: How we distinguish sounds
• -Phonology: how the sound is structured
• "spirit" but in spanish:"espirit"
• 2.Morphology: parts of words, smallest unit of language that has meaning
• Ex. "run", running, runner
• 3.Syntax: how the word is structured
• Ex."so": how is setup within a conversation
• 4.Semantics: 
• Ex. when does "bad" mean "good"
• 5.Discourse: once you get beyond the phrase to actual conversation

• -the  nonstand variety indexes low prestige, marginalized, rural, and often uneducated.
• -Ex. "We don't know how to speak our own language."
• -Negative characteristics of the group are applied to their language
• -Such that unintelligent people-----> "sloppy" grammer, unsophisticated----> coarse phonology

• -way to respect yourself and stand up for yourself
• -taking charge of one's own self

• -Marked is the irregular relative to unmarked (the normal).
• -Unmarked is the standard and marked is the non-standard.
• -An example is hat female is markedwhile male is unmarked, queer is marked while straight is unmarked.
• 1.Unmarked
• -considered the standard,  default
• -Male
• -English
• -hegemonic
• 2. Marked
• -not the standard 
• -females
• -other languages
• -nn-hegemonic

• 1.Men
• -usually the teller
• -individual reality 
• -storeis display one's own skill, courage or wit (I saved the day!)
• -skill, heroism (wasn't I great)
• -details focus on place time, and object description
• 2. Female
• -teller or someone else
• -social relaity
• -stories portray protagonist as foolish/incompetet (saved by someone else)
• -embarrassment/fear;skill aided by luck (wasn't i lucky?)
• -details focus on character and reported dialog

• -Nortenas speak spanish, wear eyeliner 
• -eyeliner means toughness

• -occurs when a minority group defines themselves in contrast to the mainstream. "we are defined by what we don't do"
• -2 types of oppositional identity practices
•           -Positive identity practices: identify as apart of the group
•           - Negative identity practices: distance from other groups

• -when a word takes on a lower status or more negatively valued meaning 
• -Examples in gender terms:
•      -Feminized form takes on a domestic or sexual connotation/meaning:
•           o master (could be a master painter, master at some task)/mistress (the other woman, home wrecker)
•           o governor/governess (person that takes care of the children; step up from a nanny, takes on domestic role)
•           o bachelor (a single man that marriage material)/spinster (bachelorette?/Vegas parties, bachelorette parties before you get married, young and wild) (single woman who no one will want to marry)
•           o dominator/dominatrix

• -Off stage performance: world is a stage, peformance with anyone such as daily interactions you have with your friends
• -Participant roles: Who's performing? Who's the audience?
• -Connection with group identity:

• -Two different manners to examine language/behavior
• 1. Prescriptive: specifying the proper way to speak or act (thinking or prescribing).
• Ex. English teachers, parents, parents, police, etc, it is their goal to speak/ teach the english language correctly
• -Prescriptive rule: Don't talk with your mouth full
• 2. Descriptive: documenting/ describing how people actually behave, look at why people do things, don't do things, etc
• Ex. Social scientists, novelists, filmmakers, anthropologists
• -Descriptive Rule: People sometimes talk with their mouth full which often results in negative reaction from others

• -Taken from the article "Styling the worker" by cameron
• -Self-styling: creates a feminization about it
• -Scripted: enforces the group's speech to be similar

• -Self-talk can be performance for listeners
• -Properly contextualize problematc actions
• Ex. when you hurt yourself, you yell out "ouch"
• -Acceptable self-talk
• 1.self-repair:oops
• 2.grief, pain
• 3.Mumbling
• 4.Shouting at drivers

• -Sex: biological
•    -To define sex one uses body structures (mass, skeleton), genitals, hormones and chromosomes.
•    -Binary(male/female)
•     -fixed
• -Gender: socially constructed
•      -To define gender one uses body shape, hair, and clothing, make up, behavioral/linguistic cues, and psychological cues.
•       -Continium (masculine/adrogynous/feminine)

• -Informal, non standard
• -slang expressions often embody attitudes and values of group members
• -originates in subcultures
• -used majorly by minorites

• -Girls seek out conflict
• -talking behnd backs
• -Members of a girls’ clique sanctioned members of their own group when someone attempted to show herself better than other clique members
• -Tag-along: person defined in terms of her efforts to affiliate to a particular group without being accepted by the group; a wannabe or an isolate; child defined by her marginal relationship to a peer group

• -a group of people who share a set of norms and expectations based around a shared language variety and shared values
• -large-scale and common exposure
• -etic not emic

• -models of female behavior = legacy of a "two cultures" perspective on moral development 
• -"separate worlds" view of girls and boys' experiences
•          1. Girls are more ‘prosocial’ than boys
•           2. male speakers are socialized into a competitive style of discourse, while women are socialized into a more cooperative style of speech. Also emphasizes solidarity and positive politeness, intimacy rather than status
• 3. “double-voiced” discourse- conflict talk among boys = self-interest; among girls = concern for affiliation, and protecting others’ face

• -Male and female vocal cords are identical until puberty.
• Because of learned patterns.
•        -Women have… ·
•             Higher pitch
•         · Greater pitch range
•         · Greater pitch variation (i.e. more “emotional)

• uw---> iw
• -"cool"/"kewl", "shoes"/shez
• -who does this?  Valley girls

• -Vowel raising: /I/ -> [I] vs [i} ; raising/lowering: refers to position of tongue in vocal tract
•            - “bit” [bIt] vs. “beat” [bit]
• -Chicano English = raising and tensing of the mid lax front vowel /I/ to a high front variant [i]

• -linguistic features: weak expletives and lexical items
• ex. charming, divine, rising intonation on declaratives
• -not all women use WL and not all WL-users are women
• -expressive intonation: emottionally expressive and not monotonous, empathetic
• -Critiques of Lakoff
• 1.Female speech as defective
• 2.Data or stereotype
• 3.Assumes single meaning

• -eyeliner = marker of identity 
• -eyeliner = Power, hard, never smile, rough, brave
• -chicana gang girl's willingness to fight the longer her eyeliner is

• -looking at language in action
• -how language influences social life
• -not just the language itself
• Ex. formal ceremonies, informal

Author: Bailey

Author:Duranti

Author:Bucholtz

• Author:Spitulinik
• -Talked about how linguistic forms/patterns circulate in communities, end up transformed. - Intertextuality: the multiple ways in which a text is entangled with or contains references to other texts.
• - Considered speech to be a text, speech can be detextualized (taken out of original context) and recontextualized (put back into context).

Author:Morgan

• Author: Cameron
• --talks about feminization of speech, even though it’s not always women talking that way; smiling, pitch (indexing sincerity and empathy), pace, volume; thought to make callers more comfortable and likely to share or be return customers

Author: Bauman

Author: Kiesling

• • multilingual (possibly multidialectal)
• • monolingual + multidialectal
• • monodialectal

speech variety used by an individual.changes depending on context and over thelifespan.

individual changes in speech style

• 1. attention to speech (Labov)
• 2. accomodation (Giles)
• 3. Audience design (Bell)

• Casual---->formal
• how much attention speakers pay to their speech

the task

• -recite lists of words
• -read a paragraph
• -engage in Q&A interview
• -narrative: "danger of death" story 

• -In polite converstaion you want to agree wtih/feel comfortable with the other person 
• -agreement and alignment---->similar style as interlocutor
• -disagreement----->different style from interlocutor

-speakers adjust their speech depending on the characteristics of their audience

• Ex. Bell (1977): New Zealand radio announcer
• -same announcer reading the news on multiple stations, consistently used different pronunciation
• -not accommodating to audience's own speech patterns. 

• 1. Speaker
• 2. Addressee: spoken to
• 3. Auditor: ratified listeners
• 4. Overhearer: known but unratified listeners
• 5. Eavesdropper: unknown listeners

• 1. Animator: who is doing the speaking
• 2. Author: created the words
• 3. Principal: whose beliefs are represented
• 4. Figure: protagonist of the narrative

• -Can be congruent: I am talking about myself
• -If not congruent: style shifting to separated self and spoken word

• 1. Cremation of Sam McGee
• -Animator: "Urgelt" (his youtube name)
• -Author: Robert Service (poet)
• -Principal: an unnamed miner
• -Figures: the miner and Sam (or Sam's corpse)

Participants aiming for mutual comprehension & shared understanding

• 1. Cross-culturally, some conversational practices are non-cooperative
• -albur! = mutual comprehension
• -clowning = insults, not about shared understanding
• -one-upmanship
• 2. Cooperation/politeness varies cross-culturally
• -Ex. Bailey:both parties trying to accommodate to 

• -youth speech
• -marks group boundaries & indexes group affiliation
• -ephermal:rapidly changing
• -often describes altered states, sex, extremes, intensifiers
• -Ex.  "Sayin Somthin" is used usually for describing an enjoyable event, place, person, or thing
• -"That dress you wearin is sayin somthin"

• -unmarked
• -normal
• -expected standard

spoken by people with power

• -referred to as the non-physical resources available to an individual on the basis of honor, prestige or recognition, and serves as value that one holds within a culture
• -Ex. A war hero, for example, may have symbolic capital in the context of running for political office.

• -one type of symbolic capital
• -being able to speak certain speech varieties give access to prestige and respect
• -not what you have, but what you can perform 
• 1. Knowing how to speak a certain way =
• -good job
• -good house in good neighborhood
• -access to education
• -respect from strangers (treated like a potential customer not a potential thief)

• 1. called up landlords asking about apartment 
• 2. Used Chicano, Afro-Am and Standard English 
• -shows that some companies screen calls on answering machines and don’t return calls of those whose voices seem to identify them as black or Latino.
• -Some companies instruct their phone clerks to brush aside any chance of a face-to-face appointment to view a sales property or interview for a job based on the sound of a caller’s voice
• -those who sound white, get the appointment

• -are a commonly used stereotype to discriminate and continue to portray Ebonics as an inferior, less intelligent means of communication
• -fictional and mimic ways of communicating in Ebonics, no semantic or syntax sense
• -Strategies: the frequent use of "be", use of vulgar language(hoe)
• -Leroy the 19 year old 3rd grader

speaking a speech variety of a group you don't belong to

• -is the prestige that comes with using the type of language that is valued by nation/larger society
• -Ex.Speakers who use standard English are therefore considered well educated, intelligent because they are using the “correct” and “best” version of English
• -In England, the use of R.P

• -Covert: "secret"
• - is the prestige that comes with using the type of language that is valued within an exclusive community
• -comes with group membership and oppositional identity
• -comes from not identifying with the standard language.
• -Ex.1: AAVE: "slave language" or "heritage language", language with low linguistic capital
• -Ex.2: Surenas speaking Spanish in school

•  a) in the person/number agreement 
•  b) in the use of aspectual markers such as be, BIN, finna, etc. which give an additional meaning to the sentence
•  c) in the multiple negation

• 1. Deletion of copula: “She is nice"-----> She nice
• 2. Deletion of auziliary: "You are going"-----> You going
• 3. Invariant habitual be: "The office be closed on weekends."
• 4. Perfective done: "He done left."
• 5. Remote aspect "been": "He been married"(he still is)
• "I been known his name" (I learned it in the past and still know it"

• 1. in-group homogeneity (sameness)
• 2. out-group difference
• 3. out-group sameness

an idea of a homogeneous group

• 1. In-group sameness: 
• -erasure of differences between us
• 2. Out-group difference:
• -erasure of the similarities we have with them
• 3. Out-group sameness:
• -erasure of differences between them
• ex. Spansih speakers--->"Mexicans
• ex. Asian immigrants----> "Chinese"
• ex. Muslims and Sikhs----> terrorists

• -praising an individual while implicity contrasting them with stereotypical characterstics of their group 
• -Ex. Whites believe Barak Obama & Colin Powell are the exception..“wellspoken” for blackmen, but maintain that most blacks are ignorant 

• -The socialization through language and to use language in socially appropriate ways
• 1.Socialization to language (ABC's)
• -communicative competence
• 2.Socialization through language(learning gender roles)
• -into cultural competence

• 1. knowing how to speak gramatically
• 2. knowing how to speak appropiately
• -politeness
• -when to be formal vs informal

• 1. Adult socializing child
• 2. sometimes child socializing adult
• 3. peer to peer

• -a nonstandard form of speech used by adults in talking to toddlers and infants.
• -also used with pets
• -can be used by anyone
• 1.High pitch
• 2.Simplisitic speech
• 3.sound reduplication
• Ex. Nite-nite instead of goodnigh

• 1.Simplified speech------>child learning
• 2.Sign of affection
• 3.natural way of interacting

• -Baby-talk is part of a larger cultural model
• -it is not universally applicable to every culture in the world
• -cultures differ widely in their views on appropriate parenting.
• Ex. Samoans: Rules restrict parents from speaking with young infants (Ochs)

• 1. Maintown
• -White-collar
• -mixed middle-class town
• -books by 6 months old(more critical and educational)
• -asked children lots of questions(encouraged critical thinking)
• -prepared for school
• 2. Roadville
• -blue-collar
• -white working class town in textile mill
• -focused more on letter and number identification
• -did not link book reading with life events
• -do well in early grades, but have greater difficulty in higher grades
• 3.Trackton
• -blue-collar
• -African-American rural community
• -Parents told them oral stories more often than reading them books
• -good at storytelling
• -do poorly in early grades

• occasions in which written language is integral to the nature of the participants' interactions and their interpretive processes and strategies
• -connection between literacy and oral language

Being able to display your knowledge to others in the proper fashion

• -extensive studies was done by Philips (1972) in which she examined participant structures and communicative competence with children from the Warm Springs Indian Reservation in Oregon
• -observed that Indian children were reluctant to participate in structures that required large and small-group recitations
• -However, they were more talkative than non-Indian children in the last two structures when they initiated the interaction with the teacher or were working in student-led group projects
• -She noted a failure of Warm Springs Indian children to participate verbally in their classrooms because the norms for social performance in their community did not support public linguistic performance
• -that observation, careful listening, supervised participation and individualized self-correction or testing are modes of learning in the Warm Springs Indian community.
• -Philips (1972) concluded that this process of acquisition of competence may help to explain a reluctance of Warm Springs Indian children to speak in front of their classmates
• -Native American Kids = disruptive students

• 1.Teacher interacts with one student in front of the class
• -Question/Answer
• 2.Teacher interacts with students privately 
• 3.Students work independently
• 4.students work in unsupervised groups

• 1.unsupervised work
• 2. group-work with other students

• 1. reluctant to answer questions when called on
• 2. don't volunteer answers
• 3. don't pay attention to/follow teacher's orders 

• -Authority figures are known family members 
• -Children learn by watching
• -children practice in private

• -evaluative talk about a person who is not present
• -information about another person
• -behind their backs
• -a negatively valued practice
• -social activity
• topics:personal life, character
• used for:exclusion of target, distribution of personal information

• -ages: 10-14 
• -Girls and Boys
• Gossip:
• -talk about a non-present person
• -involves judgement or moral evaluation
• -exaggeration

group solidarity and group norms

solving social problems

• 1. support for the evaluation
• 2. affect (emotion stances, ex. "oh my god!"
• 3. challenges/disagreements
• *first response is key
• -if first response is agreeing, nobody else ever challenges
• -if disagreeing, sometimes the narrator will change their stance

• 1. in/appropiate behaviors
• 2. how people will judge you for it
• 3. how you should judge others

• -Obento: Boxed lunch made daily by Japenese Moms
• -for child: mother's affection
• -for school: competence and maternal identity 
• -child must eat all, everyone waits till everyone is finished,
• -relays expectations at early age
• -mothers must make food appealing and easy to consume
• -The quality of a mother’s obento became a symbol of the quality of her mothering and her commitment to her child’s educational success.

• by law
• -US has no de jure official language

in practice

• An official language is a language that is given a special legal status in a particular country, state, or other jurisdiction
• -the language used by the government

• 1. Macro-social: multiple languages spoken in a society
• 2. Micro-social:l anguage mixing in interpersonal interactions
• 3. Individual: linguistic repertoire, speaking vs understanding

• 1. Government
• -documents, courts, offices
• 2. Business
• -shops, banks
• 3. Education
• -primary school, higher education 
• 4. Media
• -tv, radio
• 5. Religion

• 1. migration
• 2. colonization
• 3. border changes

• 1. Safe
• -new generation is learning it
• 2. Endangered/Contracting
• -fewer people or few contexts
• 3. Moribund
• -no new learners

• -decreased use of a language
• -fewer speakers
• -fewer domains
• -fewer styles

• -one speaker switching between two language varieties in the same interaction
• -done by balanced bilinguals
• -not a sign of low language profiency

• 1. intra-sentential
• -words within a sentence
• 2. inter-sentential
• -words between sentences

• - to be better understood
• - enhance listener's comprehension
• -Sometimes the other language has a better word or phrase to express a particular idea.
• -Sometimes the words we code-switch are the only ones we have or they are more readily available in the other language.
• -Sometimes we code-switch as a communicative tool, including to exclude someone or to show expertise.

• -men code-switch deliberately to construct an nclusive identity
• -women code-switch accidentally to construct both inclusive and exclusive identity

• • Code-switching based on task or addressee:
•   • e.g. doing school activity in English, chattingwith friends in Spanish.
• • Code-switching based on topic:
•   • e.g. school problems => English
•   • family problems => Spanish

Describing a conversation in the language in which it occurred.

• Use of single words in the secondary language.
• why?
• -speaking to monolinguals
• -claiming ethnic identity without the linguistic ability

• -North/Geography is an analogy for conflicts in youth's local lives (Nortenos and Surenos)
• -Race/ethnicity, class, education
• -North: English; American-raised
• -South:Spanish; recent immigrant, poor

• symbols of independence
• -new flag
• -new name
• -official language becomes that of citizens
• Ex. postcolonial USAL spelling symbolically separates American English from British English (theatre---->theater)

practical issues of of governing the country

• -expanding a language to be used in every domain
• -words are deliberately designed
• -to unite countries

Alim

Ronkin & Karn

Thompson

Hill

Fuller

 Ochs & Schieffelin

Phillips

Zentella

Heath

• 1. Kaluhi
• -mothers rarely leave children alone,
• -do not gaze into their eyes because they are scared of witchcraft, and hold them facetoface but face them outward, so they can see others and be seen
• -until they are 18 months, adults do not assume that they are responsive
• -stress assertiveness
• -do not respond to child unless speech is correct
• 2. Anglo-American Middle Class
• -engage in baby talk
• -facetoface interaction
• -respond to correct speech
• 3. Samoan
• -children are usually cared for by mothers rather than siblings
• -Baby talk is never used
• -do no attempt to intrept a child's sounds, not treated as socially responsive beings, but as psychological states