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A relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience.
Learning
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An organism's decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it.
Habituation
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Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).
Associative learning
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A type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events.
Classical conditioning
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The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).
Behaviorism
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In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.
Unconditioned response (UR)
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In classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally-naturally and automatically-triggers a response.
Unconditioned stimulus (US)
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In classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).
Condtioned response (CR)
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In classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response.
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
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In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengtheningof a reinforced response.
Acquisition
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A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.)
Higher-order conditioning
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The diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a condiioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.
Extinction
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The reapperance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.
Spontaneous recovery
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The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.
Generalization
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In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.
Discrimination
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The hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events.
Learned helpessness
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Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.
Respondent behavior
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A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminshed if followed by a punisher.
Operant conditioning
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Behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences.
Operant behavior
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Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.
Law of effect
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In operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking.
Operant chamber
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An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.
Shaping
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In operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement).
Discriminative stimulus
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In operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.
Reinforcer
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Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. This is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.
Positive reinforcement
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Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. This is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: this is not punishment.)
Negative reinforcement
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An innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.
Primary reinforcer
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A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through the association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer.
Conditioned reinforcer
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Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.
Continuous reinforcement
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Reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.
Partial (intermittent) reinforcement
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In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.
Fixed-ratio schedule
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In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.
Variable-ratio schedule
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In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.
Fixed-interval schedule
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In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.
Variable-interval schedule
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An event that decreases the behavior that it follows.
Punishment
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A mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.
Cognitive map
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Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.
Latent learning
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A sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem.
Insight
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A desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake.
Intrinsic motivation
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A desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment.
Extrinsic motivation
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A system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension.
Biofeedback
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Learning by observing others. Also called social learning.
Observational learning
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The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.
Modeling
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Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy.
Mirror neurons
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Positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.
Prosocial behavior
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Punishment...
May happen frequently because if the punished person stops misbehaving for a while this reinforces the punisher.
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Which of the following is an application of shaping?
A mother playing catch with her daughter gradually backs up to increase the distance between the two of them.
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Mirror neurons may...
Be the mechanism by which the brain accomplishes observational learning.
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Which of the following illustrates generalization?
A rabbit that has been conditioned to blink to a tone also blinks when a similar tone is sounded.
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Albert Bandura's Bobo doll experiments demonstrated that...
Children are more likely to imitate the behavior of adults.
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Robert Rescoria and Allan Wagner conducted experiments that established...
The importance of cognitive factors in classical conditioning.
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Edward Thorndike's law of effect...
States that rewarded behaviors is more likely to happen again.
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To produce the acquisition of a conditioned response, one should...
Pair a neutral stimulus with an unconditoned stimulus several times.
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To determine just what an organism can learn to distinguish, you would use...
A discriminative stimulus.
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A student studies long and hard to avoid the bad feelings associated with a low grade on a test. In this case, the studying behavior is being stregthened because of...
Negative reinforcement.
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Taste aversion research has demonstrated that...
There are biological predispositions inovled in learning.
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Mary checks her phone a couple times an hour for incoming text messages. Her behavior is being maintained on a ________ ________ reinforcement schedule.
Variable interval
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A dog is trained to salivate when it hears a tone. Then the tone is sounded repeatedly without a US until the dog stops salivating. Later, when the tone sounds again, the dog salivates again. This is a description of...
Spontaneous recovery
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Latent learning demonstrates that...
Cognition plays an important role in operant conditioning.
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Classical and operant conditiong were both initially based on the principles of...
Behaviorism
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Our capacity to learn new bethaviors that help us cope with changing circumstances.
Adaptability
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A relatively permanent behavior change due to experience.
Learning
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What are the three types of learning?
- 1. Classical conditioning
- 2. Operant conditioning
- 3. Observational learning
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What do we learn by?
Association
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The process of learning associations.
Conditioning.
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In this type of conditioning, we learn to associate two stimuli and thus to anticipate events.
Classical conditioning
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In this type of conditioning, we learn to associate a response (our behavior) and its consequences and thus to repeat acts followed by good results and avoid acts followed by bad results.
Operant conditioning
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Through this type of learning, we learn from others' experiences.
Observational learning
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An example of this type of conditioning is we learn to expect and prepare for significant events such as food of pain.
Classical conditioning
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An example of this type of conditoning is we also learn to repeat acts that bring good results and to avoid acts that bring bad results.
Operant conditioning
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By watching others we learn new behaviors.
Observational learning
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What did Pavlov's work lay the foundation for?
Many of psychologist John B. Watson's ideas, which formed behaviorism.
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Something the participant can notice but doesn't associate with the US.
Neutral events
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Uncondtioned =
Unlearned.
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What are the five major conditioning processes?
- 1. Acquisition
- 2. Extinction
- 3. Spontaneous recovery
- 4. Generalization
- 5. Discrimination
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Why is classical conditioning biologically adaptive?
Because it helps humans and other animals prepare for good or bad events.
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Condtioning helps an animal survive and reproduce-by...
- Responding to cues that help it
- -gain food
- -avoid dangers
- -locate mates
- -produce offspring
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This higher-order conditioning tends to be weaker than first-stage conditioning, it influences our everyday lives. Is also called...
Second-order conditioning
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Biological influnces to learning.
- 1. Genetic predispositions
- 2. Unconditioned responses
- 3. Adaptive responses
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Psychological influences to learning.
- 1. Previous experiences.
- 2. Predictability of associations.
- 3. Generalization
- 4. Discrimination
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Social-cultural influences to learning.
- 1. Culturally learned preferences.
- 2. Motivation, affected by presence of others.
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The learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus (which predicts the US) and other irrelevant stimuli.
Discrimination
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In their dismissal of "mentalistic" concepts such as consciousness, who underestimated the importance of cognitive processes (thoughts, perceptions, expectations) and biological constraints on an organism's learning capacity?
Pavlov and Watson
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What did Robert Rescoria and Allan Wagner show?
That an animal can learn the predictability of an event.
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An awareness of how likely it is that the US will occur.
Expectancy
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When the CS is something stimilar to stimuli associated with sexual activity in the natural environment, such as the stuffed head of a female quail.
Ecologically relevant
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What does learning enable animals to do?
Adapt to their environments.
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Why is Pavlov's work important? The importance lies in this finding:
Many other responses to many other stimuli can be classically conditioned in many other organisms.
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Who showed us how a process such sa learning can be studied objectively?
Pavlov.
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1. Former drug users often feel a craving when they are again in the drug-using context-with people or in places they associate with previous highs.
2. When a particular taste accompanies a drug that influences immune response, the taste by itself may come to produce an immune response.
Applications of classical conditioning
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To teach an elephant to walk on its hind legs or a child to say please, we must turn to another type of learning-
Operant conditioning.
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These are both forms of associative learning.
Classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
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Forms associations between stimuli ( a CS and the US it signals).
Classical conditioning
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Behavior that operates on the environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimuli is called...
Operant behavior
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By asking Is the organism learning associations between events it does not control? Or is it learning associations between its behavior and resulting events? what can you distinguish?
Distinguish classical from operant conditioning.
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Using Thorndike's law of effect as a starting point, what did Skinner develop?
A behavioral technology that revealed principles of behavior control.
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For his pioneering stuides, Skinner designed an operant chamber, popularly known as a...
Skinner box.
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In his experiments, Skinner used this, a procedure in which reinforcers, such as food, gradually guide an animal's actions toward a desired behavior.
Shaping
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Description of this operant conditioning term is add a desirable stimulus.
Positive reinforcement
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Examples of this operant conditioning term are getting a hug; receiving a paycheck.
Postive reinforcement
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Discription of this operant conditioning term is remove an aversive stimulus.
Negative reinforcement
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Examples of this operant conditioning term is fasting seatbelt to turn off beeping.
Negative reinforcement
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What are two ways to increase behavior?
- 1. Positive reinforcement
- 2. Negative reinforcement
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Strenghtens a response by presenting a typically pleasurable stimulus after a response.
Positve reinforcement
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Strengthens a response by reducing or removing something undesirable or unpleasant, as when an organism escapes an aversive situation.
Negative reinforcement
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Negative reinforcement is not...
Punishment.
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Removes a punishing (aversive) event.
Negative reinforcement
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Whether it works by reducing something aversive, or by giving something desirable, this is any consequence that strengthens behavior.
Reinforcement
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Condioned reinforcers, get their power through learned association with primary reinforcers, are also called what?
Secondary reinforcers
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Although initial learning is slower, intermittent reinforcement produces greater what than is found with continuous reinforcement?
Resistance to extinction.
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Reinforcement linked to number of responses.
A ratio schedule.
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Reinforcement linked to amount of time.
An interval schedule.
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Does a ratio schedule or an interval schedule produce a higher response rate?
A ratio schedule.
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Every so many: reinforcement after every nth behavior, such as buy 10 coffees, get 1 free, or pay per product unit produced.
Fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement
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After an unpredictable number: reinforcement after a random number of behaviors, as when playing slot machines or fly-casting.
Variable ratio schedule of reinforcement
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Every so often: reinforcement for behavior after a fixed time, such as Tuesday discount prices.
Fixed Interval schedule of reinforcement
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Unpredictably often: reinforcement for behavior after a random amount of time, as in checking for e-mail.
Variable interval
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What produces more consistent responding, an unpredictable (variable) schedule or a preditable (fixed) schedule?
An unpredictable (variable) schedule.
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Variable-interval schedules reinforce the first response after _______ time intervals.
Varying
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Any consequence that decreases the frequency of a preceding behavior.
Punisher
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What are the four drawbacks of physically punishing children?
- 1. Punished behavior is suppressed, not forgotten.
- 2. Punishment teaches discrimiantion.
- 3. Punishment can teach fear.
- 4. Physical punishment may increase aggressiveness by modeling aggression as a way to cope with problems.
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Punishment tells you what not to do; reinforcement...
tells you what to do.
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There is more learning than associating a response with a consequence; there is also...
Cognition.
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Biological constraints predispose organisms to?
Learn associations that are naturally adaptive.
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Description of this type of punisher is to administer an aversive stimulus.
Positive punishment
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Possible examples of this type of punisher are spanking; a parking ticket.
Positive punishment
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Description of this type of punisher is to withdraw a desirable stimulus.
Negative punishment
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Possible examples of this type of punisher are time-out from privileges (such as time with friends); revoked driver's license.
Negative punishment
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Basic idea of this type of conditioning is organims learn associations between events they don't control.
Classical conditioning
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Basic idea of this type of conditioning is organisms learn associations between their behavior and resulting events.
Operant conditioning
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Response of this type of conditioning is involuntary, automatic.
Classical conditioning
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Response of this type of conditioning is voluntary, operates on environment.
Operant conditioning
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Acquisition of this type of conditioning is associating events; CS announces US.
Classical conditioning
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Acquisition of this type of conditioning is associating response with a consequence (reinforcer or punisher).
Operant conditioning
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Extinction of this type of conditioning is CR decreases when CS is repeatedly presented alone.
Classical conditioning
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Extinction of this type of conditioning is responding decreases when reinforcement stops.
Operant conditioning
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Spontaneous recovery of this type of conditioning is the reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished CR.
Classical conditioning
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Spontaneous recovery of this type of conditioning is the reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished response.
Operant conditioning
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Generalization of this type of conditioning is the tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS.
Classical conditioning
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Generalization of this type of conditioning is organims; response to similar stimuli are also reinforced.
Operant conditioning
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Discrimination of this type of conditioning is the learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that do not signal a US.
Classical conditioning
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Discrimination of this type of conditioning is organims learn that certain response, but not others, will be reinforced.
Operant conditioning
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Cognitive processes of this conditioning is organisms develop expectation that CS signals the arrival of US.
Classical conditioning
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Cognitive processes of this type of of conditioning is organisms develop expectation that response will be reinforced or punished; they also exhibit latent learning, without reinforcement.
Operant conditioning
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Biological predispositions of this type of conditioning is natural predispositions constrain what stimuli and responses can easily be associated.
Classical conditioning
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Biological predispositions of this type of conditioning is organims best learn behaviors similar to their natural behaviors; unnatural behaviors instctively drift back toward natural ones.
Biological predispositions
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Skinner and others worked toward a day when teaching machines and textbooks would shape learning in small steps, immediately reinforcing correct response (such as use of computers).
Operant conditioning principles applied in school.
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The key is to shape behavior, by first reinforcing small successes and then gradually increasing the challenge.
Operant conditioning principles applied in sports.
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Reward specific, achievable behaviors, not vaguely defined "merit".
Operant conditioning principles applied at work.
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Operant conditioning principles also reminds us that reinforcement should be..?
IMMEDIATE
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To disrupt this cycle, parents should remember the basic rule of shaping:
Notice people doing something right and affirm them for it.
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To do this, you need to reinforce your own desired behaviors and extinguish the undesired ones.
To build up your self-control.
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What are the four steps to build up your self-control?
- 1. State your goal-to cease smoking, eat less, exercise more, or stop procrastinating-in measurable terms, and announce it.
- 2. Monitor how often you engage in your desired behavior.
- 3. Reinforce the desired behavior.
- 4. Reduce the rewards gradually.
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Giving this type of stimulus is postive reinforcement; taking it away is negative punishment.
Desired (for example, a compliment).
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Giving this type of stimulus is positive punishment; taking it away is negative reinforcement.
Undesired/aversive (for example, an insult).
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Higher animals, especially humans, can learn without direct experience, through observational learning because we learn by observing and initiating others. Also called..?
Social learning
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Mirror neurons help give rise to children's empathy and to their ability to infer another's mental state, an ability known as...
Theory of mind
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What do our brain's mirror neurons underlie?
Our intensely social nature.
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What do many business organizations use to train communications, sales, and customer service skills?
Behavior modeling
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Observational learning may have...
Antisocial effects.
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What are the two factors that seem to stem from the violence-viewing effect?
- 1. Imitation
- 2. Desensitizes viewers
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Why is Pavlov's work important?
That significant psychological phenomena can be stuided objectively, and that classical conditioning is a basic form of learning that applies to all species. Later research modified this finding somewhat by showing that in many species cognition and biological predispositions place some limits on conditioning.
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Expanding on Edward Thorndike's law of effect, B.F. Skinner and others found that?
The behavior of rats or pigeons placed in an operant chamber (Skinner box) can be shaped by using reinforcers to guide closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.
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What did Skinner underestimate?
The limits that cognitive and biological constraints place on conditioning.
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What do Albert Bandura's experiments on observational learning (also called social learning) demonstrate?
How we observe and imitate others.
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