ANT Exam 3

• one of the most adaptable species
• inhabit over 32 different environments or habitats
• temp. 100 degrees F to -50 degrees F
• below see level and up to 12,000 feet above

• human populations increase
• more efficient hunters
• hunt species to extinction
• 75% of mega fauna became extinct
• Problems: some extinction occur before humans arrive; too few humans; don't eat/need to kill so many animals

• End of Ice Age = glaciers receding
• Species could not adopt especially cold weather animals
• cold and wet -> warm and dry climate
• Shrinking habitats -> mass starvation
• Problems: animals survived previous glacial sequences without extinction; diverse animals became extinct; different food sources and ecozones; a large # of animals

• Paleolithic Period: 2.5mya-10,000ya; based on big game hunting and gathering
• Mesolithic Period: 10,000ya-7,000ya; transition from big game hunting to small game hunting and extensive gathering (more of a transition; mega fauna go extinct)
• Neolithic Period: 7,000ya-3,000ya; from the beginnings of agriculture to the use of metal tools

• From big game hunting to new food sources (deer, smaller mammals, and fish)
• Start exploiting fish and shell fish and river plants
• Use nuts roots and berries
• Extensive knowledge of plants -> ag. (experiment with plants)
• Shift in Living Sites: from cave and rock shelters to open air sites; more sites found = more ppl; small specialized sites = seasonal, food availability ex) salmon fishing
• Exploit different food sources: trade with other groups; food sharing/migration; trade cultural items (moving goods and acculumating)
• New tool complex: microlithes(chips put on sticks); small sharpened stones fitted on stick/spear; made tools that make tools; sickles(used to cut plants); mortar and pestle = grind grains, spices(expirement with cooking)

• 12,500 - 10,200ya
• Hilly flanks: use foods on side of hills to bottom of hill
• Jordan River valley: ex) Natufians; drying environment; burned ground(put nitrogen in soil; clear the land); stored food; begin to deliberately alter environment; became more sedentary; buried dead in cemeteries

• 7,000-3,000ya
• transitional stage
• collect and grow plants(use animals)
• beginnings of ag.
• use of metal tools (plow, smelt metal)
• Domestication of plants and animals (humans modify)
• Origins of Ag.: change in plant form (ex- corn); allow control of growth and harvesting
• Increase in culture tech: ag. and herding; plow (scapula of an animal); food processing tools
• Small migratory groups to large sedentary villages
• Near fields and water (easy to farm)
• production of storage vessels
• Develop wheel(not in the Old World) and animal power(for transportation and ag.)

• Broad spectrum revolution
• rely on manufactured food source
• alter foods and animals

• Desiccation or oasis theory: V. Gordon Childe
• environmental shift
• glaciers dry up
• areas dry up
• less rain
• Need to cultivate few remaining areas
• Also explains use of animals (goats, sheep, cattle)
• Population increase = more food to support population

• Farming more labor intensive than foraging (more free time as hunters and gatherers)
• does not secure food availability
• rely too much on one crop

• Middle East: 11,500ya; fertile crescent; wheat and barley
• China: 10,000 ya; millet/rice
• MesoAmerica: 9,000ya
• Mexico City and Teuhacan Valley: 6,000ya; the three sisters = squash, beans, and corn- all together, provide all amino acids (found with Native Americans)
• New Guinea: 7,000 ya; yam; banana
• S. America and S. Central Andes: 6,000ya; potato, quinoa, beans, cotton(change in clothing), peanut
• Eastern U.S.: 4,500ya; sunflower, goosefoot, squash
• Sub-Saharan Africa: 4,500ya; sorghum, millet, rice
• Europe: imported 5,000ya

• 35,000ya?
• first domesticated animals = dogs (for herding)
• select for docile one's (neotony)
• mutual domestication (benefit both ways)
• 15,000ya = definite use of dogs

• 7,000ya
• Old World (Europe, Asia, and Africa): Goats, sheep, cattle and pigs; 3,000BP = horses
• New World: 6,000BP;guinea pigs; llamas/alpacas (not herd animals); turkey

• 10,000ya
• Huge increase in population becasue of ag.
• 1900's+ = huge spike due to modern medicine

• Erosion- taking protective top layer with ag.
• deforestation
• overcrowding
• pollution
• warfare = scarce resources
• rely on one crop
• rough on the body

• staple foods
• shorter stature
• anemia = iron defficiency
• pellagra = a vitamin defficiency = niocin; rash; sores; dimentia

• lines on teeth caused by them stop growing due to illness/deficiency
• cavities (not in hunters and gatherers) (caused by sugars in grains)
• absess infection in bone
• maouth is getting smaller

• Before: bones are thicker
• After: bones become smaller
• Evolution of Osteoarthritis: bone on bone -> start to break apart
• A lot more effort to be a farmer

• many diseases from animals ex) poxes, measles, swine flu, bird flu)
• Hunters and gatherers (intestinal parasites)
• High density ag. population
• Treponematoses- Syphilis (go crazy, start in the NW, 4 types)
• TB- live in crowded unsanitary conditions, from cattle
• Animal diseases (cows)
• influenza (from birds and pigs)
• Black Plague- carried by rats with fleas

• infection of long bone (in marrow cavity)
• puss draining out
• entire bone infected
• swollen, heavy, irregular
• -> cloaca- site of injury on bone

• porus skull due to anemia
• try to produce red blood cells
• main bones of skull (parietal, occipital, frontal)
• thinning/destruction of outer cortical bone

• 90% from sunlight
• 10% from diet (eggs)
• Culture, job, pollution

• softening of the bones
• depending on age, can be reversed
• can't get calcium, bones become bowed
• effects growth and development
• adults: spine and pelvis can collapse

• -> diabetes
• -> heart disease
• -> cancer

• Jericho: 9,000ya
• Jordan River Valley
• walled settlement
• 400-900 people
• stone tower
• cemetery
• sedentary

• use a lot of stone; wood; brick; poles with mud
• a thatched roof
• permanent (does not always go with domestication)
• increased complexity (more specialized) (beginning of trade)

• an open rough weave
• wool
• cotton (in NW ex) South America)
• flax/linen (use plants)
• silk
• loom

• Stone Hedge (S.W. of London) (rock from Wales)
• Egalitarian
• Small villages
• Little division of labor
• Kinship groups
• Work together

• Southwest Asia: 8,000 - 9,000ya
• Mesoamerica: 4,500ya
• based on when ag. is introduced
• technology varied

• increased population
• increased sedentary lifestyle
• created craft specialization
• created more diverse societies

• Horticulture: a small plot; soil not good; "Hoe" gardening; swidden ag. = slash and burn; small scale ag.; moved
• Agriculture: simple to complex methods; "plow" -> mechanization
• Pastoralism: rely on animals = Transhumance activity on the seasonal migration of herds
• Hunters and Gatherers: includes foraging, fishing, and big game hunting; vary depending on environment and food sources available
• Fishing

• Meaning: laws, religion, language
• Anthropology: large # of ppl, cities, social stratification, central political system, stable
• Cities: large size; large population; labor specialization; class stratification; surplus (store houses)

• Villages -> Towns ---> Cities
• 4,500 - 6,000ya: Mesopotamia; Egypt; Indus Valley
• 5,000ya: China
• 4,000ya: Peru
• 2,000ya: MesoAmerica
• Civilization developed independently

• Brought into this area; idea brought
• Mediterranean
• Sub-Saharan Africa
• Southeast Asia
• Polynesia (last few thousand years)
• North America

• 9,500ya
• South Central Turkey
• 5,000 ppl
• No streets (walk on top of buildings)
• No central authority
• No intense ag. (hunting and gathering)

• Indus River Valey (Western India)
• 4,000ya
• 20,000 ppl
• Grid pattern
• flood control (walls protect it)

• Modern day Mexico City
• Mesoamerica: 2,200ya
• pyramids(sun over cave- portal to underworld, moon)
• apartments on the side of road(Street of the Dead) connecting pyramids for elite
• special living for foreigners(trading)
• 100,000ppl
• had 6 levels of social classes
• Artisans
• Merchants
• Farmers(irrigation)
• layout based on astronomy

• in Guatemala
• Mayan civilization
• 3,000 - 1,100ya
• 120 sq. km (Disney World)
• 45,000 ppl; 700 per sq. km
• Great Plaza
• houses
• smaller plazas
• temples
• public buildings (libraries, poor houses)
• Social classes (some what based around religion)
• Trade center
• woodworking, pottery, masons, textile wrkrs
• Imported: jade, obsidian
• Hereditary rulers
• Defensive ditches/embankments
• Religion: Priests = crops (empire falls during climate shift)
• Fruit trees (orchards)
• Raised fields to control water
• Increasing warfare
• Pressure from food/land
• Nutrition problems in skeleton
• --> Decline

• Agricultural  innovations: irrigation- dikes, canals, resevoirs; increase yields; Sumaria (first place of irrigation)
• Diversification of labor: increase in population; Artisans; Craft Specialists- Silversmith, sculptors, tanners, butchers, carpenters, barbers, potters, engravers, bakers; Bronze Age; produce tools of bronze(metal alloy- copper and tin); ornamental; armor(first time); plows; swords(more people = more conflict)
• Central Government: Centralized; taxes- pay for common good; manage surplus; defense- army, fortifications
• Social Stratification

• Pyramids: elaborate tombs; found all over the world; oriented to points of compass; tallest buildings in world for 3,800yrs; largest = 775ft long, 481ft high, 2.3 million blocks, would take 10,000 men 20 yrs
• Temples
• Palaces
• Sculptures

• provide info
• Keep records: political, religious, some economic(track food surlpus and taxes)
• Sumerian: Ur- first found in(5,000ya); reeds on clay tablets; stone tablets;  for record keeping; mark equals word- eventually stood for syllables(earliest that can be decoded)
• China: wrote on tortoise shells and stones; 8,600ya; not sure of its use; can't be decoded; no syllables; possibly just art; lacking proto-writing; lack expectations
• Mesoamerica: Maya; on pillars; celebrations; independent development

• Babylonia: 3,700 - 3,950ya; keep records; Hammurabi- first to create laws(to write them), created the Hammurabi code, laws on property, loans, family rights, malpractice, penalties -"eye for an eye"
• Inca: Spread out along western S. America; first invaders; Peru- peak at 1,525AD, had a system of roads(runners), 2,500 miles by 500 miles, multiple ethnic groups, emperor ruled in Couscous, administrative regions, runners carried messages(up to 250 miles a day)

• Social classes
• Family of birth
• type of work
• wealth of accumulation
• Evidence: laws written, burial customs, dwelling size and location, skeletal remains

• Easier to share resources
• Group ID
• Provide a better defense
• Easier to control groups
• Ecological Approach: environment = changing environment led to agriculture and cities, ex) Mesopotamia
• Hydraulic theory: irrigation- takes a lot of effort and ppl; first ag.; first cities; first writing; first laws; Near Mesopotamia
• Trade-network theory: scarcity of resources -> need central auhority; found in Mesopotamia, Highlands(Chillies), coast(salt), intermediate areas(cotton, beans) (Teotihuacan)
• Environmental barriers theory: seas, mountains, desserts; hemmed in by natural barriers; creates warfare and conflict = need for central government (ex) Inca)

Not all cultures fit: New Guinea(limited barriers and irrigation yet no central gov't); North America(extensive trade, no big cities); neighboring groups co-exist; Tikal- environment shaped?(not sustainable)

Self serving actions by forceful leaders: impose hereditary rule; ties into religion- Divine Rights

• Waste Disposal: garbage, sewage
• Disease: TB
• Genetic Resistance

Rome 800BC: first sewer systems

• Heterozygous Advantage: like sickle cell and malaria; connection btwn diarrheas(dehydration) and cystic fibrosis; TB and Tay-Sachs; Black plague and AIDS
• Lethal in Homozygous form

• Old World Diseases: due to animals
• New World lacked these animals
• Up to 90% of Indian community wipes out due to disease
• Exception: syphilis, chagas disease(Darwin had mild symptoms...20yrs later symptoms show up)

• Disease, crime, overcrowding, pollution
• Bring goods to city, brings  minds together, solve problems, protection

• Lacck of Arable Land: overuse, paved over, salinization(salts in water accumulates)
• Warfare/Disputes: usually over land

• Human Variation: height, weight, skin color, eye color, hair color
• On a contimuum

• People categorize things: plants, animals, cars, music, etc.
• Each culture different
• Biological diversity categories vary

• European exploration: geographic exploration
• Linnaeus: tied to colors(first time skin color comes into play); white, black, red, yellow
• Blumenbach: used to promote slavery; hierarchy; Caucasian(to include western Asians and N.ern Africans); Mongolian; Malay; Ethiopian; American Indian; Ethnocentric ideas

• Challenge concept of race
• Franz Boas: critisized racial superiority claims; environment influences what is being seen; "Race and Progress" 1909 science; biological approach- effects of environment; looked at immigrant children and their head shape; immigrants and offspring

• 1905 - 1999
• Man's Most Dangerous Myth: The Fallacy of Race (1942)
• United Nations Statement on race (1950)
• Ethnic groups: use ethnicity not race; againt racism; no pure race
• Continuum: no sharp breaks; every trait in every population

Subspecies?: gene flow btwn groups; population differing- geographic, morphological, genetic

Discordant: passed down independently- eye color, hair color, skin color; black-blue eyes; white-brown eyes; dark-green eyes; many polygenetic; don't come together as a bundle

• All traits found in all populations
• More variation inside a population than between populations

• Share same types of genes
• more differences in a pop. than between
• Abandon race for CLINE: a geographic distribution of traits; polytypic; polymorphic

• darker around equator in Africa and Australia
• not in NW long enough for adaptations

• Also a cline
• Cultures that use milk, can break down lactose enzyme

• A blood: stomach cancer, anemia, small pox
• O blood: ulcers, bubonic plague

• race cultural
• 500 races: edu, money made, can change it
• Changable
• 38.5% consider themselves multi-racial

• Categories: white, black, NA, Asian, Pacific Islander; 2,000 added more races
• Mixed race individuals: 6.1 million in 2006; 2010- increase by 134%;can now check multiple boxes(self-identification)
• Hypodescent: % of minority, had to ID themsleves as that

• Oversimplified categories
• No genetic distinctions
• Confuse social and biological factors: diet, religious restrictions; cultural norms
• Most diseases are biocultural

• medical research conducted differently for minorities
• Tukegee Syphilis Study: U.S. public health; Alabama(1932-1972); understand syphilis in Af. Amer. men; with held treatment; did not inform infected individuals of infection

• Doctine of superiority
• Dehumanize one group (appearance/intelligence)

• prejudice
• cruelty
• repression
• slavery
• mass murder
• genocide

Based on: culture, environment, IQ, cultural capabilities, physical abilities, growth and development

• Affect growth and development
• Disease: access to medical care, belief in treatment, diet
• Lactose intolerance: biological change- due to cultural influence- retain thrifty gene

Permits storage of fat: scarcity, foraging, based on glucose; diet of abundance causes problems- obesity, diabetes, heart disease

• Thickness of skin
• Carotene- orange hands and feet
• Blood vessel reflection
• Melanin: produces coloration- controlled by multiple genes- sun exposure

• Dark skin: ancestral form- proved natural spf
• Light skin recent form

• Between epidermis and dermis
• having melanin, protects skin from sun
• dark skin = up to 15spf, sunburn/overheating, infection
• Sun exposure -> loss of iron -> anemia
• Vitamin D production
• Same # of cells, production varies
• Females have lighter skin than males- in all populations

• Active during day time
• Protection from sun
• Protect blood?
• Protect sweat glands?

• Environment: weather
• Culture: clothing, food
• Migration

• Increase volume of body for heat production
• A stockier body

• Limbs, ears, nose
• Longer in hot climate = cool down
• Shorter in cold climate = contain heat

• Thomson's nose rule: warm air
• Skull shape: elongated in hot, compacted in cold

• Hot 
• Cold
• High Altitude- harshest to body
• Disease- most effective
• Adopt to these either faculatative, genetic, or cultural

• Genetic: least likely; a long time; Bergmann's and Allen's rule; parents of offspring; evolutionary forces- genetic drift, mutation, population changes
• Facultative or Acclimatization: physical changes; Short Term- happens in a persons lifetime; how individuals change, can be temporary(tan); Long Term- not passed on; can alter growth and development(big chest, catch up growth); Developmental- don't have them from birth, affected by environment
• Cultural: varies; change over time; day to day life; clothing; food; main form of adaptation; medicine
• Biocultural Interactions: ex) cold environment -> clothes to keep body temperature
• Secular Trends: differences in traits in different age groups

Body, growth spurts(2) affected by the environment

• Hot and Humid: ex) Amazon
• Hot and Dry: ex) desert, Savannah
• Equatorial  Areas: both above
• Hyperthermia: overheating; heat stroke; need adaptations to regulate body temperature

• Hot and Dry: cover up from sun, dark skin, short hair, wear sandals
• Hot and Humid: less clothing, lighter skin, longer hair, bare foot

• 17,000-20,000ft
• A recent environment
• Harshest: on the human body, changes development, body adapts
• Lack of Oxygen: as much as 70% less than sea level, Peru, Himalaya Mountains

• Short Term: can occur in days; no major visible changes; increase carrying capacity of red blood cells; high altitude are dangerous for those with sickle cell anemia
• Long Term: increase size of chest cavity; "barrel chest"

• Arctic
• High Altitude- ex) Himalayas
• Glacial areas
• Hypothermia: body temp drops below 98.6 degrees
• Facultatice and Genetic Adaptations: Bergmann's and Allen's rules; hunting response(Lewis Waves)(prevent frost bite); vaso constriction- blood vessels get smaller; keep core warm; not sicklicle; goosebumps- left over from fur; create a barrier against the cold; shivering- produce short term heat; increased metabolism
• Cultural: diet- high in fat and protein(seals)(use every port); housing(igloo); fire/heating(seal oil); clothing(skins); times of activity(light hours)

• Exposure to disease elements
• Death/infertitlity
• Most influential of all environments (found in every environment)
• Genetic: heterozygous advantage ex) sickle cell and malaria; cystic fibrosis and cholera/TB; black plague and HIV/AIDS
• Facultative: symptoms when sick; fever, coughing, pain, vomitting, sneezing, inflammation, morning sickness, anxiety
• Cultural
• Fight Disease: medicine, wash hands, sterilize, breast feeding, immunizations, vitamins
• Cause Disease: lack of hygiene, hand washing(not immune), overcrowding, malnutrition, living with animals, easily transmitted, use formula(no immune system), refuse immunizations

• Minimum space requirements: NY subway, Concentration camps, Black Hole of Calcutta
• Stress factors: problems getting food, lack of sanitation, privacy, anxiety issues, pollution, reduction of personal space, spread of infectious disease
• Classic Overcrowding study in rats: by J.C. Calhoun in 1962; allowed rat population to reach very high levels and noted adaptations- cessation of estrous cycle(stop ovulating and no periods), reduced litter #, decreased body weights, increase in cannibalism, male homosexuality, and size of the adrenal gland (cortex)
• Overall Adaptive Strategy: need to limit population size ex) China, Need to learn to live with conditions(develop a high stress tolerance), adapt to the stress

• Genetic: not many- relatively recent; may be selection for- ppl who adopt to stress better(type "B" individuals, type "A" are uptight), ppl who metabolize less palatable, poisonous, or toxic food stuffs(manioc- a root used in S. America and Africa that contains toxic levels of arsenic)
• Facultative: Short term acclimatizations- increase stress response, adrenaline and parathyroid hormones, increase sympathetic nervous sys. response- fight or flight, increase in heart rate and blood pressure; Long term acclimizations- increased miscarriages and still births, active immune system in response to disease, decreased fertility, decreased sperm, period abnormalties, increase infant mortality rate
• Developmental acclimatizations: slow growth rates- stress, malnutrition, disease, highly activated immune system, enlarged endocrine glands
• Cultural: approval of celibacy or gays, tolerance of crime, neuroses, psychoses, includes infantcide, abortion, birth control, selective breeding(polygyny), cultural taboos- limit pop. growth, prolonged breast feeding

• Pollution
• Climate Change- sea level rising
• Depletion of natural resources
• Rapid change- in just past 100 yrs

• Medical System Analysis: sickness and health- defining in each culture, look to doctors, nurses, patients, across cultures, medical practitioners, possible treatments, prevention, how transmitted
• Across Cultures: different in every culture
• Use Evolutionary Theory: understand and improve human health, include political/economic/global forces, examine global movement of disease
• Epidemiology: understand rate of disease of population, occurrance, who it impacts
• Began Early 20th Century: many early anthropologists had medical training
• Brought Bias to Field: western medicine, field work changes this
• Less Ethnocentric: study across culturally
• Cultural Exchange: eastern medical practices examined- accupuncture, meditation, yoga, herbs

• Disease: specific pathology- "interruption, cessation, or disaster of a body, system, or organ, structure, or function"; physical or biological abnormalties
• Illness: meanings given to particular physical states
• May not overlap
• Have Illmess without illness: ex) Munchhowsen disorder- make oneself sick on purpose
• Have disease without illness: ex) high blood pressure
• Don't Understand Biology of the Disease: alccoholism, create treatment, recognize it as illness, western medicine seeks biological explanation, non-western medicine may seek other explanations

• Quantitative study: occurrance and cause of disease, population based
• Broad-Scale Associations: look at the big picture
• Ill Health and Factors Associated With it: ex) tv cropping up = high pverty? high crowding?; originally to combat disease ---> now to prevent

• Rates: event per population
• Mortality: probability of dying in a particular group- look at all deaths related to disease(only part of a pic)
• Incidence: new disease in a population in a particular time period
• Prevalence: number of cases of disease in a total population

• More incidence whites, less mortality
• Less incidence blacks, higher mortality
• Occurs in older women (after menopause)
• In Males: more incidence now, but mortality had decreased

• Change in patterns of disease and mortality: hunters and gatherers = parasites
• Less developed countries: infectious diseases- no access to vaccinations
• Developed countries: chronic diseases- heart disease, cancer
• Three proposed: intro to ag. -> infectious disease(decreases overtime) -> chronic diseases(increase overtime)

• Biocultural approach: complex variables; evolutionary and cultural histories- anorexia nervosa = self starvation(cultural norms of thinness), non-western focused on not eating not on thinness
• Evolutionary: use natural selection concepts- defect = disease, defense = body's attempt to fight disease; pneumonia- cough ejects infectious material, darkening skin because blood not carrying enough oxygen; defenses developed to fight disease

• Affect life cycle
• Mode of transmission
• Environmental
• Cultural- ex) washing hands
• Catch up growth- due to lack of growth spurt
• Extreme environments
• Maintain homeostasis- balance, body function at normal level
• Delay Growth Spurts- from insult, ex) disease
• Pre and post-natal nutrition and care- basic vitamins and minerals; if lacking, biological stages prolonged or missed; premature birth, dental eruption time, pubertal onset

• Low birth weight baby
• Chronically malnourished
• Depleted fat and muscle
• Hyper-alert and very hungry
• Look like wrinkled old man

• Apathy
• Swelling(edemal) of extremities, torso, and face
• Cracked, peeling, infection prone skin
• Unnaturally blonde, sparse hair
• Sudden food deprivation
• Natural or man made emergencies

Cross cultural variations: alter life cycle stages, nurse until 4 or 5(delay reproductive changes); marry and give birth early(8yr old child brides; require celibacy (a priest or nun)

• Organism within its environment: ex) malaria
• Learn transmission modes: prion disease- affects proteins of brain tissue; ex) mad cow disease; ex) Kuru- eat brain as death ritual; thought death was due to a sorceror

Multiple medical systems: (medical pluralism); use western, eastern, and local practices; different treatments and practices; incorporate local when introducing western medicine

• Study Inequities
• Access to health care
• Exposure: malnutrition; overcrowding; violence, toxins
• Structural Violence: imposed by the gov't or ruling org.; repression(Hawaiians); environmental destruction; poverty; hunger; illness; premature death; health disparities
• Population Size: hunger, poverty, pollution, create health problems, 1 billion ppl malnourished; 6 million children 5 and under die of hunger
• Obesity in Industrial nations
• Working class most afffected: not active; healthy food is expensive
• First time children not expected to live as long as parents: less healthy than other industrailized nations
• Environmental toxins: affect the poor more -> interact with land; quality of drinking water
• Climate Change: deforestation, human activity, increase in disease

• not until ag. is introduced
• over 2 million deaths a year
• make stagnant pools of water
• increase in temperature--->places not seen; 50-80 million new cases; increase range to new areas
• S.E. Asia; S. America; Central Africa------> spread to surrounding countries