flashcards- Review Sheet Final Exam.txt

• * A tentative and testable prediction about how changes in one thing is expected to explain and be accompanied by changes in something else.
• * The IF will HAPPEN when ALTER something statement

• * Research methods that emphasize depth of understanding and the deeper meanings of human experience, and that aim to generate theoretically richer, albeit more tentative, observations.
• * Commonly used qualitative methods include participant observations, direct observation, and unstructured or intensive interviewing.

• using evidence in practice- it is a process in which practitioners make practice decisions in light of the best research evidence available.
• * Involves evaluating the outcomes of practice decisions.

• * Voluntary participation
• * Informed consent- participants know what they are agreeing too.
• * No harm to the participant- unless knowingly and willingly accept risks of harm
• * No Deceiving subjects
• * Long term benefits outweigh violation of certain ethical norms

• A model or frame of reference that shapes our observations and understandings.
• It interprets the world
• o For example, �functionalism� leads us to examine society in terms of the functions served by its constituent parts, whereas �interactionism� leads us to focus attention on the ways people deal with each other face-to-face and arrive at shared meanings for things.

looks at everything as having a function.

focuses on people's interaction face-to-face.

completely impossible for anyone to be completely objective/ everything is subjective/ no objective truth.

cannot be completely objective; there is objective truth to situations.

gain empathetic understanding of how people feel inside- deeper meanings of feelings

o focuses on oppression and competition between groups

(top down) - start with known theory and create hypothesis

* A systematic set of interrelated statements intended to explain some aspect of social life or enrich our sense of how people conduct and find meaning in their daily lives

• (bottom up) start with observations, create and test hypothesis then develop theory
• * Example: use of child theory and play therapy to allow a child to play with figures in a sand tray.

* A mental image that symbolizes an idea, an object, an event, or a person.

• 1. Accidental
• 2. Snowball
• 3. Quota
• 4. judegmental 

* A sampling method aimed at ensuring that enough cases of certain minority groups are selected to allow for subgroup comparisons within each of those minority groups.

• a) A type of nonprobability sample
• units are selected into the sample on the basis of prespecified characteristics so that the total sample will have the same distribution of characteristics as are assumed to exist in the population being studied.

• i) Advantage: Convenience and more representative than accidental sampling
• ii) Limitations: Stratification is only limited to few variables and thus may not be representative of population

• a) A type of nonprobability sampling in which cases selected for observation are those that are not thought to fit the regular pattern.
• i) For example, the deviant cases might exhibit a much greater or lesser extent of something.

• 1. stratified random sample
• 2. simple random sample
• 3. cluster smaple 

• a) A probability sampling procedure
• uses stratification (breaking into groups then randomly selecting) to ensure that appropriate numbers of elements are drawn from homogeneous subsets of that population.

• i) Advantages: Ensures that diverse elements of the population are included
• ii) Limitations: Must know where each element will fall into the strata

a) A nonprobability sample that is obtained by asking each person interviewed to suggest additional people for interviewing.

• i) Advantages: Useful when potential subjects are hard to locate
• ii) Limitations: Favors the opinions of its starting point. Very easy to miss other networks

a) A multistage sampling procedure in which natural groups (clusters) are sampled initially, with the members of each selected group being sub sampled afterward.

• i) Advantages: Good for larger studies, as it makes it more manageable
• ii) Limitations: Can be problematic if random selection is not used

a) probability sample in which the units that compose a population are assigned numbers. A set of random numbers is then generated, and the units having those numbers are included in the sample.

• i) Advantages: very systematic, ensures that every element has the same chance of being chosen
• ii) Limitations: Can be limited by the sampling frame and minority elements may be under represented

a) probability sample in which every kth unit in a list is selected for inclusion in the sample.

a) A sampling method aimed at ensuring that enough cases of certain minority groups are selected to allow for subgroup comparisons within each of those minority groups.

• a) A survey question that is to be asked of only some of the respondents, depending on their response to some other questions.
• i) For example, all respondents might be asked whether they belong to the KKK, and only those who said yes would be asked how often they go to meetings. The latter would be a contingency question.

• a) nonprobability sample in which we select the units to be observed on the basis of our own judgment about which ones will be the most useful or representative.
• b) Another name for this is purposive sample.

• i) Advantages: Useful in exploratory studies, developing theory
• ii) Limitations: Bias exists, No way to know extent of representativeness

• a) A sampling method that selects elements simply because of their ready availability and convenience.
• b) Frequently used in social work because it is usually less expensive than other methods and because other methods may not be feasible for a particular type of study or population.

• i) Advantages: Easy and convenient. Would suffice with testing new intervention
• ii) Limitations: No way to know if the sample is typical to the population at interest

* A term often used in connection with whether logical arrangements permit causal inferences; also refers to all the decisions made in planning and conducting research.

Longitudinal- purpose is to study one characteristic over time

• a. Usually termed �survey�, Examines the distribution of one variable
• b. A system for collecting info to describe, compare, or explain knowledge, attitudes, or behavior
• c. Used when population is too big or disperse to view collectively
• d. Common to explore questions
• e. Sometimes experimental or quasi-experimental

• monitor a given characteristic of some population over time.
• a. An example would be annual canvasses of schools of social work to identify trends over time in the number of students who specialize in direct practice, generalist practice, and administration and planning.

• longdituinal study- Examine more specific subpopulations (cohorts) as they change over time.
• information from different member of the group may be used at each point of collection

a. Gain familiarity with a problem Often qualitative

a. Purpose to explain situation- qualitative

a. Research studies that examine some phenomenon by taking a cross section of it- at one time and analyzing that cross carefully.

• a. research Design that attempts to control for threats to internal validity and allow for causal inferences
• different from true experiments primarily by the lack of random assignment of subjects.

• a. A research method that attempts to provide maximum control for threats to internal validity by:
• 1. Randomly assigning individuals to experimental and control groups,
• 2. Introducing the IV (which typically is a program or intervention method) to the experimental group while withholding it from the control group
• 3. Comparing the amount of experimental and control group change on the DV

a. An idiographic examination of a single individual, family, group, organization, community, or society using a full variety of evidence regarding that case.

a. quasi-experimental designs- multiple observations of a dependent variable are conducted before and after an intervention is introduced.

• what are the Rules for writing survey:(8)
• o Clear instructions, no double barreled questions, short, overall very neutral, purposeful order, pre-test survey, exhaustive- all options available, mutually exclusive- can�t belong to two categories

o Inexpensive, can reach large populations, able to generalize data, able to analyze multiple variables at the same time, high reliability

o Limited ability to show causality, rely on self-report- not able to measure social behavior, not able to include life context, questionable validity

• * The concrete and specific definition of something in terms of the operations by which observations are to be categorized.
• o Example: �improvement� in school as the concept. Improvement means getting better grades, less times in detention, joining after school club/sports teams
• The overall research process & designing a study

• * Random assignment of subjects to experimental and control groups
• * Manipulation of independent variable
• * Control over extraneous variables

• Choose a problem- look a relevant theories, other research already done,
• Formulate hypothesis- identify IV, DV, extraneous variables
• Select research design- quasi experimental vs experimental
• Select sample- how are you going to get sample? Control vs experimental groups
• Develop instruments of measurement- used established or create own
• Collect data
• Analyze data
• Write the report

• In quantitative studies, the researcher predicts in advance the relationship they expect to find between variables. That prediction is called a hypothesis.
• Most hypotheses predict which variable influences the other, in other words, that which is the cause and that which is the effect.

• a) Refers to the decisions made in planning and conducting research
• b) Often used in connection with whether logical arrangements permit causal inferences

a) People or things actually studied

• a) A single problem can/should have multiple indicators
• 1. Increases reliability/validity
• 2. Allows for triangulation

• How you will collect the data (experiment vs. survey vs. field research vs. historical)
• when, where and by whom your data will be collected with each instrument.

• a) Process of synthesizing raw observances to demonstrate patterns (e.g. statistical tests)
• b) Statistical analysis specifies the statistics to be computed and statistical tests to be used in analyzing the data collected. It determines whether or not the data support the hypothesis.

a) Start with a review of your original question (What was your interest in this area of study?, What, if any, research or theory informed your investigation?)b) Provide a detailed description of your methodology, Design, sample, Interview guide (described in text but attached as appendix), Method of analysis, Describe findings

• 1. Data reduction (description)
• 2. Pattern Identification (description & inference)
• 3. Generalizability (inference)

• Organize by themes
• Use verbatim quotes to support interpretations
• discuss the meaning and implications of what you found

• R O X O
• R O O

• R X O
• R     O

• R O X O
• R O     O
• R     X O
• R         O

• R O  Xa    O
• R O   Xb   O
• R O           O

• R O   Xab  O
• R O   Xa    O
• R O   Xb    O

• two existing groups that appear to be similar and measures change before and after an intervention is introduced into one of the groups.
• O X O
• O     O

• multiple observations of a dependent variable are conducted before and after an intervention in introduced.
• The more observations, the better- more data points help rule out history, maturation, or statistical regression.
• O O O O X O O O

• qualitative research technique
• * A technique employed in interviewing to solicit a more complete answer to a question, this nondirective phrase or question is used to encourage a respondent to elaborate on an answer
• * It helps encourage the interviewee to give a full a response as possible.
• examples: please tell me more about that. Can you clarify?

nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio,

measures refer to those variables whose attributes are simple different form one another. An example would be gender

refer to those variables whose attributes are not only rank ordered by also separated by a uniform distance between them. An example would be IQ.

refer to those variables whose attributes may be rank-ordered along some progression for more too less. An example would be the variable prejudice as composed of the attributes very prejudiced somewhere prejudiced and not at all prejudiced.

rank order, uniform distance, also based on a true zero are. example age

• * A time-series design used to evaluate the impact of an intervention or a policy change on individual cases or systems.
• * Comparison of baseline and intervention phase
• * AB design A=baseline B= intervention
• o Positives: clear understanding of clients problems, easily apply to practice, client intervention specific
• o Limitations: may not be able to accurately get baseline because of clients needs, not, no time to use because of heavy caseloads

confidence that study accurately depicts whether one variable causes another

• o Maturation- passage of time
• o History- other major life events happen that skew causality
• o Testing- clients get used to testing process
• o Instrumentation change- make sure to use same measures at pre and post test
• o Regression to the mean- (statistical regression)- things naturally improve on their own- people in crisis don�t stay in crisis
• o Selection bias- make sure control and experimental groups are comparable
• o Ambiguity about the direction of the causal influence- making sure the IV happened in time before the DV

• * Association- showing the IV and DV are associated (go together) either positively or negatively
• * Time Priority- IV happened BEFORE the DV
• * This happens through logic,manipulation of IV (experiment)
• * Ruling out alternative explanations- dcontrol other variables
• * Sampling- choose not to use participants that may give alt explanations
• * Random Assignment
• * Statistical Analysis- after study is complete
• * Theoretical explanations- if association between variables can be explained by a theory its more likely that there is a causal relationship

• Mutually exclusive- only fit into one category ex. Age: 0-5, 6-10,11-15
• Exhaustive- all categories are represented ex. Gender: male, female, transgender

comparison of baseline to intervention phase.

• * A description of the number of times the attributes of a variable are observed in a sample.
• Example:The report that 53 % of a sample was men and 47% were women would be a simple example of a frequency distribution.
• o Another example would be the report that 15 of the cities studied had population under 10,000, 23 had populations between 10,000 and 25,000.

Mean, median, mode, range, variance, standard deviation

mathematical average: to compute the mean add the scores of all the caes and divide by the numbers of cases

The middle- the point on the scale below which lies 50% of the cases and above which lie 50%

difference between the largest and smallest responses

most often- category of the variable OR the interval on the scale that contains the most cases

the value repsorents how much the scores vary from the mean.

sum of the squared deviations about the mean, divided by the number of responses.

the positive square root of the variance. It is the 'average' difference scores are from the mean.

• that quality of a measurement method that suggests that the same data would have been collected each time in repeated observations of the same phenomenon.
• results in studies r= 0-1 (closer to 1 is best) o For example: In the context of a survey, we would expect that the question �did you attend church last week?� would have higher reliability that the question �about how many times have you attended church in your life?

• Test-retests- If answers are consistent when given the same test at different points
• Split-half (coefficient alpha)- most common. Extent to which different samples of items from an instrument are consistent with the entire set. for example, Correlation of even number responses to odd number of responses
• Parallel Forms Reliability- Two groups, two different versions of same measurement instrument. Same instrument- questions asked in different order.
• Inter-rater Reliability- Making sure the observers, or clinicians delivering treatment are measuring same concept based on same measurement

• a descriptive term used of a measure that accurately reflects the concept that it�s intended to measure.
• o For example, your IQ would seem a more valid measure of your intelligence than would the number of hours you spending the library. Realize that the ultimate validity measure can never be proven, but we may still agree to its relative validity, content validity, construct validity, internal validation, and external validation.

purpose- does the measure reflect the concept intended

Face value- Does it appear to measure the intended concept

Content validity- Covers the theoretical domain of concept- group of experts review

• *large sample sizes are selected,
• * higher significance levels are used, and
• * a stronger relationship in the population is assumed.

• * Immediately after the title page.
• * Briefly summarizes the study
• * Between 75-150 words
• * Being with a sentence identifying the purpose of the research
• * Next, a sentence or two that summarizes the main features of the research design and methodology.
• * The main findings are then highlighted in one or two sentences followed by a brif mention of any major implications.

• * Grand tour- General overview of topic
• * Example/story- Respondent provides a personal example or story of specific event
• * Structure or contrast- Respondent is asked to reflect on contrasting situations/responses

* A mailed questionnaire that requires no return envelope

• o 50% adequate
• o 60% good
• o 70% very good

o Looking back and asking client to tell you about their behavior prior to treatment/intervention. When you aren�t able to observe the baseline because of crisis or timing

• * In scientific perspective, we can NEVER EVER NEVER establish true causality
• * Association- Showing that the independent and dependent variables �go together� or vary systematically in relation to each other.
• o For example:If one is true, the other is true. - As one goes up, the other goes up (or down)
• * But NOT: they have no relationship
• * Time priority- Showing that independent variable (A) preceded dependent variable (B)

The use of more than one imperfect data-collection alternative in which each option is vulnerable to different potential sources of error

• * Strengths:
• o Depth and richness of data
• o Research happens in natural setting
• o Ability to understand ongoing social processes (usually longer, able to see change over time)

• o Instruments
• o Ethical Concerns
• o Sampling- non-probability
• o Little validity or reliability

o Implies that the IV has a causal impact on the DV

• 1. Prolonged Engagement - mult interviews or
• lengthy stay in the field
• 2. Triangulation – Having multiple sources of data
• 3. Peer Debriefing - Consult other researchers to
• monitor bias
• 4. Member Checking –Verification of interpretations
• with respondents
• 5. Negative Case Analysis –Search for cases that refute
• interpretation
• 6. Audit Trail –Document everything: steps taken,
• decision points, interpretations, etc.

Independent variable is attribute variable