Botany 1203 Final Exam2.txt

• Sequence of classification from kingdom down to species level
• Kingdom, Phyllum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species

• Classification- system of naming is called binomial nomenclature
• *binomial name: species

• Canabis sativa
• *C: genes
• *s: species

• 1. CHLOROPHYTA: Green Algae
• - chlorophyll a and b
• - ancestor of true plants
• - unicellular
• - multicellular-sea lettuce
• - Fresh or salt water

• 2. CHROMOPHYTA: Yellow Green
• -Diatoms:
• -Single celled
• -Photosynthetic
• -Silica cell wall
• -chlorophyll a and c
• -Diatomaceus Earth
• -Water Filteration
• -Brown Algae
• -Phaeophycae
• -Chlorophyll a and c
• -Algin- gelatinous starch
• -Alginates used in food and other products
• (thinkeners)

• 3. DINOPHYTA: Dinoflagellates
• -single cells-with a whip like flagella
• -photosythetic- chlorophylls a and c
• -causing Red Tides and ciguatera

• 4. RHODOPHYTA: Red Algae
• -Macro Algae
• -Photosynthetic- chlorophyll a and d
• -Agar Food Reserve - biomedical research

Chlorophyta

• Sporophyte-diploid phase->
• Meiosis->
• Spores-> haploid phase->
• Gametophyte->
• Gametes-male and female->
• fuse {fertilization}- zygote->
• diploid-> =

• Bryophytes "mosses" are in the primitive group
• -no vascular system

• Bryophytes
• Liverwort- hepaticaphyta
• Bryophyta- mosses

• Gametophyte- main body
• Sporophyte- attached to the gametophyte

• Psilotophyla- Psilotum -Moa (wiskbroom)
• Lycopodiophyla- Lycopodia -waewaeiole (club moss)
• selaginella- spike moss
• Equisetophyla- Horsetail ferns/ scouring rushes

seeds can go dormant

• 1. Pinophyta: Redwoods
• 2. Ginkophyta: Maiden hair tree
• 3. Cycodophyta: cycads
• 4: Gnetophyta: Mormon tea (Ephredra)

• Pinophyta- turpintine- paint thinner, Rosin- wax, wood, paper,
• Pine nuts, pesto, violines onther in struments
• Amber Fossilized Resin

seed bearing

Pollination: when pollen reaches stigma

Fertilization: when sperm fuses with eggs

flower provides an incentive "nectar" for pollinator

Superior: when ovary is above petals and sepals

Inferior: Below sepals and petals

• Berry- Banana
• Aggragate- Raspberries
• Pome- Apple
• Multiple- Pineapple
• Specialized Berries- Pepo- gourds, watermelon, pumpkins
• -Hesperidium-citrus

• 3 Types of dry DEHISCENT fruits: splits at maturity
• - Legume-*splits on 2 sides* Pea Pod, Koa, Albizia
• -Follicle- *splits along one side* milkweed, african tulip, achiote
• -Capsule- *splits along 2 or more sides* Autograph tree, Mahgbany

• 3 types of dry INDEHISCENT fruits:
• -Achene- sunflower seed
• -Carypis- grass fruit exp. rice, wheat, corn
• -Nut- Acorns, Filberts, chestnuts, Hard Periderm covering seed

1. Ecology: the interaction of plans and animals(Biotic) with each other with their physical environment (Abiotic)

2. Population: a group of individuals of the species level same species in a given area ex: all sliver swords on Mauna Loa

• 3. Community: ALL species in a given area
• -whole biotic community
• -plant community
• -birds community
• -insects community

4. Ecosystem: system of interacting organisms with their physical environment

• Succession of communities:
• -Colonization of an area by the biotic community after disturbance or new land formation

• Primary:
• - colonization where no life existed before
• -volcano- lava flows
• -landslides- exposing new rock (substrate)
• -land uncovered by glacial retreat

• Secondary:
• -Re-colonization after disturbance
• -Fires, storms, tsunamis, human disturbance

study of fungi

• -Cell walls made of CHITIN
• -body or thallus is formed by hyphae- tubular threads may or may not have cell walls
• -mass of hyphae is a mycelium typically lives in soil, rotting veggies
• -Decomposition- major ecological role
• -Reproduction separate haploid and diploid phases

Zygomycota- bread molds, no cell walls, (zygote) Diploid is short lived

Ascomycota- sac fungi- yeasts- Brewing and baking, delicacy mushrooms- truffles/ morrel, mildew, ergot

Basidomycota- club fungi, mushrooms edible, toadstools- poisonous, puffballs, earth stars, shelf or ear fungus (pepeiao), smut

Deutereomycota- fungi imperfect- life cycle not known, Penicillium- antibiotic, blue cheese

• Tundra?
• Also called Arctic Tundra. Cold, boggy plains existing in the extreme northern latitudes. Long, harsh winters and short summers. Layer of permafrost, permanently frozen ground.

Dominated by conifers, a huge evergreen forest biome that stretches across northern portions of north america and eurasia. Worlds largest biome, with wolves, bears, moose, and caribou. AKA Boreal Forest.

Coniferous temperate rain forest is one of the richest wood produces in the world and supplies us with lumber. Also rich in epiphytic vegetation, such as mosses, lichens, and ferns.

Summers are hot, winters are cold. Broadleaf evergreens, saplings, and shrubs. Hardwoods, such as oak, hickory, etc.

Thicket of evergreen shrubs and small trees. Mediterranean climates, with soils that are thin and relatively infertile. Native plants are adapted to the fires since they are so frequent.

Deserts are dry areas in temperate (cold deserts) and subtropical or tropical regions (warm deserts). Desert soils are low in organic material but often high in mineral content, such as salts sodium chloride and calcium carbonate.

When the temperature is warm throughout the year and precipitation occurs almost daily. Found near the equator in Central and South America, Africa, and Southeast Asia. Most trees are evergreen flowering plants. Usually not dense at ground level, except near riverbanks.

The interacting system that encompasses a community and it's nonliving physical environment.

Living and Nonliving things

• The colonisation of barren ground by plants and animals and the changes which follow is called an...?
• ecological succession

• Primary succession
• Secondary succession

Land that has not previously been inhabited (no soil) → lichen (pioneer species) → mosses → small flowering annual plants → grasses → shrubs → soft wood trees (pines and community → hardwood trees (oak) and community

Many centuries

When the soil already exists but plants have been destroyed eg after a fire

Annual plants

Shorter - around one hundred years

the habitat is altered by the plants growing there

The stable community in the ecosystem where the dominant species of plants are well adapted to environmental conditions and in which no further succession takes place

• Complex food webs
• High species diversity
• High biomass

unidirectional

• •Late in the ______, some plants developed secondary
• growth: ___________________.
• Devonian (~400 mya)

Tolerate severe ecological conditions that could not support an independent gametophyte stage.

Withstand variation in climate that included unfavorable periods of drought or cold.

Develop mechanisms for both animal and wind dispersal into new habitats

• a)Mesozoic
• 65 Mya
• Cretaceous/140 mya
• ~60 million yrs/Cenozoic [remain dominant plants]

• -reduction of the size of thegametophyte
• -seeds
• -Pollen

produce 2 types of spores (seed plants do this)

One becomes female gametophyte, one becomes male gametophyte.

• The female gametophyte that arises from a megaspore of a heterosporous plant.

• A plant structure in which megaspores are formed, such as those of the female cones of pines

when a pollen grain lands near a female gametophyte and a pollen tube is produced that digests its way through the sporophyte tissue to the megagametophyte.

(“naked seeds”): ovules and seeds are not protected by ovary or fruit tissue

• •4 major groups of living Gymnosperms
• §Cycads (Cycadophyta): 300 spp,
• §Ginkgos (Ginkgophyta): only 1 species survives
• §Gnetophytes (Gnetophyta): 90 spp.
• §Conifers (Coniferophyta): 700 spp.,

300 spp, appear palm-like, but w/o flowers; mostly tropical.

§Ginkgos (Ginkgophyta): only 1 species survives, Ginkgo biloba.

90 spp., restricted to deserts and the tropics.

700 spp., the cone bearers, includes the pines, firs, junipers; aredominant trees in northern climates; include oldest living organisms on earth(e.g. bristlecone pines that germinated ~4,800 ya).

A cone is a modified stem, bearing a tight cluster of scales (reduced branches), specialized for reproduction. Megaspores are produced here.

• Strobilus:
• cone-like structure; scales are modified leaves. Microspores are produced here.

Jurassic, 150 million years

• Tertiary
• 250,000

Double fertilization with a diploid zygote and triploid endosperm.

Endosperm—nutritive tissue in seeds

Ovules and seeds enclosed in a carpel

Flower develops as a reproductive structure

Fruits (mature ovary) protects ovule and aid in dispersal.

• Xylem with vessel elements and fibers, phloem with
• companion cells

-Microgametophyte has two male gametes. Nucleus of one combines with egg.

-The other nucleus combines with two haploid nuclei of female gametophyte to form a triploid nucleus—becomes the endosperm.

-Endosperm nourishes developing sporophyte.

•Enclose ovules and seeds; that’s why Angiosperms mean “enclosed seed”:

-provide protection, and may interact with pollen to prevent self-pollination.

microsporangia/filament and anther

megasporangia/ pistil/stigma, style, ovary

•have large and variable # of sepals and petals.

“one-housed”; male and female flowers occur on the same plant.

“two-housed”;male and female flowers on different plants. Inflorescence: grouping offlowers.

Hetero

Simple/Aggregate/Multiple/Accessory

Monocots and Eudicots

one cotyledon (generally have leaves with parallel veins ); mostly wind pollinated. Monocots include grasses, cattails, lilies, orchids, and palms

two cotyledons (usually have leaves with netlike veins); mostly animal pollinated (e.g. most flowering plant species). Eudicots include most of the seed plants, including most herbs (nonwoody plants), vines, trees, and shrubs.

Amborella trichopoda: the most primitive living angiosperm (found only on New Caledonia, an island in the south pacific).

“Water lilies”: the most primitive of the widely distributed Angiosperm groups.

Star anise (Illicium floridanum) and relatives.

Magnoliids (Magnolias).

• Nonvascular plants tend to grow tall.

• FALSE
• FALSE

b

NO

They do not have tube like structures.

TRUE

C. 

A.

B. sporophyte

b

a

TRUE

C.

TRUE

YES

A.

trees   rocks

c

B.

d

• Fungi (3)
• -mushrooms

-Eukaryotic

-mulitcellular (except yeast)

-absorbtion nutrition

-cell walls made of chitin

-storage material: glycogen

- Lack of organs

-reproduce by spores

-hypha

-mycelium

-hymenium

-fruiting body

-secretes enzymes outside of fungi

- break down materials externally, then absorbs fungus

divisions ends in -mycota

bread molds

sac fungi

club fungi

imperfect fungi

a) bread molds

b) no fruiting bofy

• c) asexual reprodcution
• *sporangium: spores
• *sporangiosphore : stalk

• d) sexual reproduction
• *zygote (fertilized egg)
• -inside a zygosporangium

a) sac or cup fungi

• b) ascocarp: fruiting body
• -cup and other shapes
• c) ascus (plural asci)
• -sac-like hypha
• -8 internal ascospores

a) club or gill fungi

• b) basidiocarp: fruiting body
• * not all look like mushrooms

c) basidium : club shaped hyphae, 4 external basidiospores

a) blue green molds

b) no sexual reproductive stage

• C) asexual reporduction
• *conidia (asexual spores) on conidiospores

ex) penicilun, aspergills

• a) parasites
• -living on live organisms
• *fungi on people and plants

• b) saprophytes
• -living on dead organisms
• *wastes, wood rot

• a) decomposers
• -breaks down and recycle nutrients in soil
• *saphrophytes
• b) mutualists
• -two organisms living together, benefitting
• *lichens: fungus gets food, algae get shelter

• c) fungi as food
• *yeasts and cheese

• Vascular plants
• -vascular tissue

-seedless

-seed plants

a) spores

ex) fern allies and ferns

ex) pines and flowering plants

3 phyla

• -related to ferns
• -less common
• -not all lead to evolution of seed plants
• -spores
• -cones (most)

club mosses

ex) club mosses and spike mosses

ex) horsetails and scarring rushes

ex) whisk ferns

dual branching

ferns

• -vascular tissue
• -spores
• -cuticle
• -stomates
• -true organs

• -dominant (what one sees)
• * larger and more complex

-small

-green, photosynthetic

-sperm needs to swim to egg

• a) frond
• b)fiddlehead
• c)rhizomes
• d)adventitious roots
• e)sorus
• f)sporangium
• g)annulus
• h)lip cells

• -leaf
• *usually compound

Pinnae: leaflets

Rachis: petiole

crozier

-immature frond

-it uncurls

-horizontal stem

roots that grow on segments or parts on stem

-brown spots on leaf

-group of sporangium

Insidium: flap. unbrella like protects the sporangium

• -produces sporocyte inside
• *sporocyte, sperm mother cell

thick ring on top of sporangium

-sporangium opening that opens to release spores

a) spores

b) gametophyte plant

c) archegonia

d) antheridia

-formed after meiosis

-makes gametophyte plant

-non vascular

-small

-green

-heart shaped

-rhizoids (no roots)

contains egg

-female reproductive

• evolutionary ecology.
• focuses on adaptations of indivduals within a population

focuses on demography and simple interactions (within a population or between two populations)

• focuses on complex species interactions.
• (eg. indirect effects of food webs and succession)

• focus on complex interactions among all species and physical environment
• -according to pathways of energy, matter, and information.

• -traces pathway of matter and energy flow
• -principles of feedback dynamics to understand regulatory pathways and state in the system

major energy transformations majorly depend on photosynthesis or respiration.

photosynthesis and plant growth turns carbon dioxide and water into organic carbon. stores energy

by plants and animals, organic carbon is broken down into carbon dioxide and water. releases energy that does work and degrades into heat.

• energy flows thru paths in food web, cuz energy is stored and transferred in biomass.
• -energy is lost at each transfer

• P - phosphorous
• C - carbon
• N - nitrogen.
• -required for growth, maintenance, and reproduction of organisms.
• -cycling of each element is a major functions of ecosystems.

• occurs in mineral deposits and marine sediments
• -released thru weathering of rock
• -assimilate thru plants and recycled thru ecosystem
• -unassimilated P washed into oceans, where remains dissolved till deposited into sediments

• 1. fixation.
• 2. ammonification
• 3. nitrificaton.
• 4. denitrification.

speclized bacteria reduce atmospheric nitrogen to biologically useful forms with enzyme nitrogenase either ammonium or as nitrate.

organic nitrogen compounds used by plants to construct proteins. proteins eventually metabolized and excess nitrogen is excreted to environment as waste.

ammonia excreted as waste can further metabolized by microbes in soil. the oxidation of ammonia to nitrite, from mitrite to nitrate.

in soil under anaerobic conditions, microbes convert nitrates back to N gas.

foundation of all organic molecules. atmospheric C compounds such as carbon dioxide and methane influence global climate.

• 1. photosynthesis/respiration
• 2. exchange of CO2 between atmosphere and oceans.
• 3. precipitation of carbonate sediments in oceans

• dependent on global distribution of land cover:
• -photosynthesis requires N.
• -N limiting in most ecosystems.
• -fixation and storage of C closely linked to N cycle

soil nitrogen content tends to increase, organic carbon content increase, fraction of phosphorous available decreases

nutrient losses from ecosystems

• disrupt ecosystem function and structure.
• -terrestrial ecosystems, lead to reduced species richness, simplified community structure
• -favor few competitively dominant species
• -aquatic evironment: can come from human and natural sources.

• population booms and death of primary producers = huge detritus inputs. decomposition of dead organisms strips waters of oxgyen.
• -extreme: water can become hypoxic

• what are the characteristics of club mosses?
• •Small, evergreen groundcover

ground cedar

shining clubmoss

stiff clubmoss

tree clubmoss

wolfs claw clubmoss

• What is soil?
• Is a complex mixture of inorganic and organic materials with variable amounts of air and water.

clay, silt, sand, gravel and rocks

• Of living and non-living plant and animal material.
• Living organisms- insects, earthworms and microorganisms
• non-living- plants and animals waste and residues(remains of dead bodies) in differnt stages of decompoition.

• 1.texture
• 2.structure
• 3.acidity
• 4.gas content
• 5.biotic composition
• 6.water content

• What is a specie? (organism)
• All members of all populations of one "type" of organism.

All members of one specie living together and interbreeding.

All population (biotic) plus all abiotic factors.

• A nonliving condition or thing
• example: climate or habitat, that influences or affects an ecosystem.

A living thing, as an animal or plant, that influences or affects an ecosystem.

• The largest ecosystem defined by large geographical areas and distinguished by rainfall and temperature.
• example: Tundra, dessert, tropical rainforest

The areas of the earth that contains life.

Study of ecosystems.

Mass of the living organism.

bio=life mass=amt of matter

"self feeders" either photosynthetic or chemosynthetic.

"other feeders" gets energy from other organisms.

Photosynthetic organisms building biomass using sunlight.

• Organisms that obtain their food by consuming primary producers.
• example: most protist, all animals and mistletoe (plant eat other plants)

Organisms that eat primary consumers.

Organisms that eat secondary consumers.

• An animal who, as an adult, has no natural predators in its ecosystem.
• example: great white shark

Material from decomposed, unconsumed plants and dead remains of animals and waste products.

Consumers that get their energy from detritus.

Detritivores that break down dead organisms from all trophic levels.

A linear depiction of energy flow, with each organism feeding on and deriving energy from the preceding organism.

A system of food chains in which there are multiple links between species.

Each feeding level in the food chain.

• Tertiary consumer
• (secondary carnivore)

• Secondary consumer
• (carnivore)

• Primary consumer
• (herbivore)

• Primary producer
• (autotrophs)

Plant like plankton. Photosynthetic protests in plankton.

Informal group of organims that includes swimming protists, bacteria, viruses, and small animals.

Aquatic organisms such as worms, copepods, tiny jellyfish, and small larvae of invertebrates and fishes.

Production of photoshynthetic organisms. It's equivalent to the carbon fixed during photosynthesis.

It is gross primary production minus the energy released during cellular respiration of photosynthetic organisms.

The gain in the biomass of heterothophs and decomposers.

The number of individuals decreases at each trophic level.

example: oak tree, caterpillar

The number of individuals decreases at each trophic level.

For example: in glassland, there may be hundred of plants /sm, dozens of inseccts that feed on the plants, a few spiders feeding on the insects, and birds that feed on the spiders.

One single producer such as an oak tree can support hundreds of herbivorous beetles, caterpillars, and other primary consumers, which in turn, may support thousands of predators.

• Weighing the organisms in each trophic level.
• example: an oak tree weighs more than all its herbivores and predators combined. Shows an upright pyramid.

The totall biomass in an ecosystem at any one point in time.

Example: in some marine and lake systems, the biomass of phytoplankton supports a higher biomass of zooplankton. This is possible because the rate of production of phytoplankton biomass is much higher than that of zooplankton and the small phytoplankton processes large amounts of energy.

• Shows the rate of energy production rather than standing crop.
• It is NEVER inverted.
• Example: howard Odum's energy pyramid for Silver Springs also shows that large amounts of energy pass through decomposers, despite their relatively small biomass.

The higest amounts of free energy are found at the lowest trophic levels.

1) Energy can not be created nor destroyed

2) During energy transformation much of the useful energy is lost to the system.

Only 10% of the energy in any trophic level passes into the next level.

The tendency of certain chemicals to concentrate in higher tropic levels in food chains.

example: in a Lake Michigan food chain, the highest concentration of DDT was found in gulls, tertiary consumers that feed on fishes that, in turn, eat small insects. The biomagnification of DDT in lipids causes its concentration to increase at each  successive link in the food chain.

Refers to the accumulation of substances such as pesticides, or other organic chemicals in an organism.

Example: accumulation of DDT in Lake Michigan food chains.

• seed
• embryo & nutrients in a protective coat

• megasporangium
• megaspore
• protective integuments

cone-bearing gymnosperms

• angiosperm structure for sexual reproduction
• --> fruit

• encloses flower
• (green underpart)

produces pollen

• filament
• anther-where pollen is produced

• ovary > ovule
• style
• stigma-where pollen is recieved

• mature ovary that protects seed and aids in disperal
• fleshy or dry

female gametophyte that develops > ovule > ovary

pollination between different plants

pore to the inside of ovary

2 sperm goes into ovule

• 1st fertilizes egg
• 2nd goes to central cell and initiates development of endosperm (fruit)

seed leaves

less derived and include flowering plants from old lineages

amboralla trichopoda, water lilies, and star anise

• share traits with basal angiosperms but evolved later
• magnolia, laurels, blakc pepper plants

1/4 of angiosperms

• 1 cotyledon
• parallel veins
• scattered vascular tissue
• fibrous roots
• 1 opening in pollen grain
• floral organ in 3x

2/3 of angiosperms

• 2 cotyledons
• netlike veins
• rings of vascular tissue
• taproot (mainroot) present
• 3 openings in pollen grain
• floral organs in 4x/5x

• Hemiparasites
• Parasites of the xylem to use water and minerals from host
• Have photosynthetic leaves to make food

• Parasites of both xylem and phloem
• Usually have small, yellowish scaly leaves incapable of photosynthesis

• Bacteria
• Stramenopiles (OOmycetes)
• Fungi (Asco, Deutero, Basidio)
• Viruses
• Nematodes
• Parasitic Plants

compounds produced by fungi while infecting plants that are toxic to humans and animals

• Aflatoxin
• Vomitoxin
• Fumonisins
• Ergot alkaloid toxins

• Deoxynivalenol
• Giberella Ear Rot of Corn, Head Blight of Wheat
• Animals vomit and refuse to eat

• Fusarium moniliforme
• Fusarium Ear Rot of Corn
• Blind Staggers, pulmonary edema, cancer, death

• Claviceps purpurea
• Ergot of Rye, St Anthony's Fire, Gangrene

• What are bryophytes?
• Land plants that are non-vascular. They don't have flowers, nor do they produce seeds.

Bryophytes reproduce via spores.

The Hepatophyta (liverworts), Anthocerotophyta (hornworts), and Bryophyta (mosses).

A haploid structure or organ producing and containing male gametes.

A haploid structure or organ producing and containing female gametes.

Bryophytes that produce only antheridia or archegonia on a single plant body.

Bryophytes that produce both antheridia and archegonia on the same plant body.

• what are bryophytes?
• •Primitive plants

rock, wood and soil

• turf
• cushion- stems packed together conserve H20
• mat- grows on rotting logs
• weft- starts growing straight then curving
• fan- grows on tree trunks, (tropical region)
• dendroids- look like trees

means upright growth

means relaxed growth

thread-like chain of cells that forms the earliest stage of a bryophyte life cycle

structure in plants, fungi and some other organisms that functions like a root in support or absorption

• cell shapes
• alar cells
• costa
• margin
• awn

sexual and asexual stages

gemmae

brood bodies

fragmentation

common liverwort

peat moss