Basidomycota- club fungi, mushrooms edible, toadstools- poisonous, puffballs, earth stars, shelf or ear fungus (pepeiao), smut
Deutereomycota- fungi imperfect- life cycle not known, Penicillium- antibiotic, blue cheese
Tundra?
Also called Arctic Tundra. Cold, boggy plains existing in the extreme northern latitudes. Long, harsh winters and short summers. Layer of permafrost, permanently frozen ground.
Taiga?
Dominated by conifers, a huge evergreen forest biome that stretches across northern portions of north america and eurasia. Worlds largest biome, with wolves, bears, moose, and caribou. AKA Boreal Forest.
Temperate Rain Forest?
Coniferous temperate rain forest is one of the richest wood produces in the world and supplies us with lumber. Also rich in epiphytic vegetation, such as mosses, lichens, and ferns.
Temperate Deciduous Forest?
Summers are hot, winters are cold. Broadleaf evergreens, saplings, and shrubs. Hardwoods, such as oak, hickory, etc.
Chaparral?
Thicket of evergreen shrubs and small trees. Mediterranean climates, with soils that are thin and relatively infertile. Native plants are adapted to the fires since they are so frequent.
Desert?
Deserts are dry areas in temperate (cold deserts) and subtropical or tropical regions (warm deserts). Desert soils are low in organic material but often high in mineral content, such as salts sodium chloride and calcium carbonate.
Tropical Rain Forest
When the temperature is warm throughout the year and precipitation occurs almost daily. Found near the equator in Central and South America, Africa, and Southeast Asia. Most trees are evergreen flowering plants. Usually not dense at ground level, except near riverbanks.
Ecosystem
The interacting system that encompasses a community and it's nonliving physical environment.
Living and Nonliving things
The colonisation of barren ground by plants and animals and the changes which follow is called an...?
ecological succession
What are the two kinds of succession?
Primary succession
Secondary succession
What are the sequence of events in primary succession?
Land that has not previously been inhabited (no soil) → lichen (pioneer species) → mosses → small flowering annual plants → grasses → shrubs → soft wood trees (pines and community → hardwood trees (oak) and community
The time taken from the colonisation of the intial pioneer species to climax community can be...?
Many centuries
When does secondary succession occur?
When the soil already exists but plants have been destroyed eg after a fire
What do the pioneer species in secondary succession tend to be?
Annual plants
Does secondary succession take longer or shorter than primary succession?
Shorter - around one hundred years
Succession occurs because...?
the habitat is altered by the plants growing there
What is a climax community?
The stable community in the ecosystem where the dominant species of plants are well adapted to environmental conditions and in which no further succession takes place
Climax communities tend to have...?
Complex food webs
High species diversity
High biomass
During succession the same sequence of events always takes place and the changes which take place cannot be reversed. This means succession is...?
unidirectional
•Late in the ______, some plants developed secondary
growth: ___________________.
Devonian (~400 mya)
thickened woody stems of xylem
Alternation of generations differs between nonvascular plants, vascular non-seed plants, and seed plants
The evolution of seeds provided a means for plants to:
Tolerate severe ecological conditions that could not support an independent gametophyte stage.
Withstand variation in climate that included unfavorable periods of drought or cold.
Develop mechanisms for both animal and wind dispersal into new habitats
Seed plants dominate on land during the___a___ era
Gymnosperms were dominant during the ___a___, until about ______.
Angiosperms also appear later in the ___a___
era during the ________ period (oldest fossils from _____)
Angiosperm radiation was explosive; they became dominant in _____ in the_______ era.
a)Mesozoic
65 Mya
Cretaceous/140 mya
~60 million yrs/Cenozoic [remain dominant plants]
Factors that contributed to the success of seed plants include:
-reduction of the size of thegametophyte
-seeds
-Pollen
heterosporous
produce 2 types of spores (seed plants do this)
One becomes female gametophyte, one becomes male gametophyte.
Megagametophyte
The female gametophyte that arises from a megaspore of a heterosporous plant.
Megasporangium
A plant structure in which megaspores are formed, such as those of the female cones of pines
Pollination
when a pollen grain lands near a female gametophyte and a pollen tube is produced that digests its way through the sporophyte tissue to the megagametophyte.
Gymnosperms
(“naked seeds”): ovules and seeds are not protected by ovary or fruit tissue
•4 major groups of living Gymnosperms
§Cycads (Cycadophyta): 300 spp,
§Ginkgos (Ginkgophyta): only 1 species survives
§Gnetophytes (Gnetophyta): 90 spp.
§Conifers (Coniferophyta): 700 spp.,
Cycads (Cycadophyta):
300 spp, appear palm-like, but w/o flowers; mostly tropical.
Ginkgos (Ginkgophyta):
§Ginkgos (Ginkgophyta): only 1 species survives, Ginkgo biloba.
Gnetophytes (Gnetophyta):
90 spp., restricted to deserts and the tropics.
Conifers (Coniferophyta):
700 spp., the cone bearers, includes the pines, firs, junipers; aredominant trees in northern climates; include oldest living organisms on earth(e.g. bristlecone pines that germinated ~4,800 ya).
Cone vs Strobilus
A cone is a modified stem, bearing a tight cluster of scales (reduced branches), specialized for reproduction. Megaspores are produced here.
Strobilus:
cone-like structure; scales are modified leaves. Microspores are produced here.
The oldest angiosperm fossils are_______, ______ old. Radiation was explosive during the Tertiary. Over _______ species exist today.
Jurassic, 150 million years
Tertiary
250,000
5 Synapomorphies in Angiosperms include:
Double fertilization with a diploid zygote and triploid endosperm.
Endosperm—nutritive tissue in seeds
Ovules and seeds enclosed in a carpel
Flower develops as a reproductive structure
Fruits (mature ovary) protects ovule and aid in dispersal.
Xylem with vessel elements and fibers, phloem with
companion cells
Double fertilization
-Microgametophyte has two male gametes. Nucleus of one combines with egg.
-The other nucleus combines with two haploid nuclei of female gametophyte to form a triploid nucleus—becomes the endosperm.
-Endosperm nourishes developing sporophyte.
Carpels
•Enclose ovules and seeds; that’s why Angiosperms mean “enclosed seed”:
-provide protection, and may interact with pollen to prevent self-pollination.
Carpels bear______. One or more carpels form the_____ = _______.
Petals and sepals are modified leaves. Often play a role in attracting pollinators.
microsporangia/filament and anther
megasporangia/ pistil/stigma, style, ovary
basal clades
•have large and variable # of sepals and petals.
Monoecious plant:
“one-housed”; male and female flowers occur on the same plant.
•Dioecious plant:
“two-housed”;male and female flowers on different plants. Inflorescence: grouping offlowers.
Angiosperms are _____sporous
Hetero
•_______ fruits develop from one carpel (e.g. cherry).
•_______ fruits develop from several carpels (e.g. rasberry).
•_______ fruits form from a cluster of flowers (e.g. pineapple).
•_______ fruits develop from parts other than carpels (strawberry, apple).
Simple/Aggregate/Multiple/Accessory
Most Angiosperms are in two clades:
Monocots and Eudicots
Monocots:
one cotyledon (generally have leaves with parallel veins ); mostly wind pollinated. Monocots include grasses, cattails, lilies, orchids, and palms
Eudicots:
two cotyledons (usually have leaves with netlike veins); mostly animal pollinated (e.g. most flowering plant species). Eudicots include most of the seed plants, including most herbs (nonwoody plants), vines, trees, and shrubs.
Other 4 Angiosperm clades include:
Amborella trichopoda: the most primitive living angiosperm (found only on New Caledonia, an island in the south pacific).
“Water lilies”: the most primitive of the widely distributed Angiosperm groups.
Star anise (Illicium floridanum) and relatives.
Magnoliids (Magnolias).
Nonvascular plants tend to grow tall.
TRUE
FALSE
FALSE
Nonvascular plants tend to grow low to the ground because they do not have any vascular tissue.
Which of the following is not an example of a nonvascular plant.
C.
Do nonvasclar plants have tubelike structures to pass materials from one cell to another?
YES
NO
NO
They do not have tube like structures.
Nonvascular plants pass material from one cell to another cell.
TRUE
FALSE
TRUE
The thin rootlike structures that anchor moss and absorb water and nutrients from the soil are called _____________.
C.
The fuzzy green part of the moss is called the __________ generation.
B.
The slender stalk with a capsule that holds spores is the __________ generation of the moss.
D. sporophyte
What is the slender stalk like structure that grows from the gametophyte generation of a moss called?
A.
Which of the following IS a plant that typically is the first to grow back in an area after a fire.
A.
Sphagnum moss that grows inbogs does not decay when it dies.
TRUE
FALSE
TRUE
When sphagnum moss dies, it sinks down into the acidic bog water, sinks to the bottom, and becomes compressed into layers producing _____________.
D.
Peat CAN be used as a fuel to heat homes and cook food.
TRUE
FALSE
TRUE
Is a liverwort a nonvascular plant?
YES
NO
YES
The liverwort received its name because it is shaped like the human ___________.
D.
Moss and liverworts are found growing along the sides of ____ and on ______.
(Fill in the blanks)
trees rocks
What part of the hornwort looks like a horn?
B.
Which of the following is rarely found growing on rocks and trees.
C.
Which of the following prefers to grow in moist soil mixed in with grass plants.
C.
Fungi (3)
-mushrooms
-molds
-mildews
what is a fungus? (7)
-Eukaryotic
-mulitcellular (except yeast)
-absorbtion nutrition
-cell walls made of chitin
-storage material: glycogen
- Lack of organs
-reproduce by spores
General features of Fungi (4)
-hypha
-mycelium
-hymenium
-fruiting body
(fungus) Absorbtion nutrition (3)
-secretes enzymes outside of fungi
- break down materials externally, then absorbs fungus
Classification hierachy of fungi
divisions ends in -mycota
Zygomycota
bread molds
Ascomycota
sac fungi
Basidiomycota
club fungi
Deutermycota
imperfect fungi
Division Zygomycota (4)
a) bread molds
b) no fruiting bofy
c) asexual reprodcution
*sporangium: spores
*sporangiosphore : stalk
d) sexual reproduction
*zygote (fertilized egg)
-inside a zygosporangium
Division Ascomycota (3)
a) sac or cup fungi
b) ascocarp: fruiting body
-cup and other shapes
c) ascus (plural asci)
-sac-like hypha
-8 internal ascospores
Division Basidiomycota (3)
a) club or gill fungi
b) basidiocarp: fruiting body
* not all look like mushrooms
c) basidium : club shaped hyphae, 4 external basidiospores
Division Deuteromycota
a) blue green molds
b) no sexual reproductive stage
C) asexual reporduction
*conidia (asexual spores) on conidiospores
ex) penicilun, aspergills
Negative aspects of fungi (2)
a) parasites
-living on live organisms
*fungi on people and plants
b) saprophytes
-living on dead organisms
*wastes, wood rot
Positive aspects of fungi
a) decomposers
-breaks down and recycle nutrients in soil
*saphrophytes
b) mutualists
-two organisms living together, benefitting
*lichens: fungus gets food, algae get shelter
c) fungi as food
*yeasts and cheese
Vascular plants
-vascular tissue
-most succesful land plants
2 groups of vascular plants
-seedless
-seed plants
(groups) seedless
a) spores
ex) fern allies and ferns
(groups) Seeds
ex) pines and flowering plants
Fern Allies (6)
3 phyla
-related to ferns
-less common
-not all lead to evolution of seed plants
-spores
-cones (most)
Phyla Lycophyta
club mosses
ex) club mosses and spike mosses
Phyla Equisetophyta
ex) horsetails and scarring rushes
Phyla Psitolophyta
ex) whisk ferns
dual branching
Phyla polypodiophyta or pterophyta
ferns
6 characteristics of Polypodiophyta
-vascular tissue
-spores
-cuticle
-stomates
-true organs
Sporophyte generation of a fern
-dominant (what one sees)
* larger and more complex
Gametophyte generation of a fern
-small
-green, photosynthetic
-sperm needs to swim to egg
what is seen from a fern (sporophyte plant) (8)
a) frond
b)fiddlehead
c)rhizomes
d)adventitious roots
e)sorus
f)sporangium
g)annulus
h)lip cells
(sporophyte gen. characteristics) Frond (3)
-leaf
*usually compound
Pinnae: leaflets
Rachis: petiole
(sporophyte gen. characteristics) Fiddlehead
crozier
-immature frond
-it uncurls
(sporophyte gen. characteristics) Rhizome
-horizontal stem
(sporophyte gen. characteristics) Adventitious roots
roots that grow on segments or parts on stem
(sporophyte gen. characteristics) Sorus
-brown spots on leaf
-group of sporangium
Insidium: flap. unbrella like protects the sporangium
(sporophyte gen. characteristics) Sporangium
-produces sporocyte inside
*sporocyte, sperm mother cell
(sporophyte gen. characteristics) Annulus
thick ring on top of sporangium
(sporophyte gen. characteristics) Lip cells
-sporangium opening that opens to release spores
What you see in a fern (gametophyte plant)
a) spores
b) gametophyte plant
c) archegonia
d) antheridia
(gametophyte plant char.) Spores
-formed after meiosis
-makes gametophyte plant
(gametophyte plant char.) Gametophyte plant
-non vascular
-small
-green
-heart shaped
-rhizoids (no roots)
(gametophyte plant char.) Archegonia
contains egg
-female reproductive
Fern life cycle
evolutionary ecology.
focuses on adaptations of indivduals within a population
population ecology.
focuses on demography and simple interactions (within a population or between two populations)
community ecology.
focuses on complex species interactions.
(eg. indirect effects of food webs and succession)
ecosystem ecology.
focus on complex interactions among all species and physical environment
-according to pathways of energy, matter, and information.
ecosystem perspective.
-traces pathway of matter and energy flow
-principles of feedback dynamics to understand regulatory pathways and state in the system
energy flow
major energy transformations majorly depend on photosynthesis or respiration.
photosynthesis.
photosynthesis and plant growth turns carbon dioxide and water into organic carbon. stores energy
respiration.
by plants and animals, organic carbon is broken down into carbon dioxide and water. releases energy that does work and degrades into heat.
energy transformations based on trophic levels.
energy flows thru paths in food web, cuz energy is stored and transferred in biomass.
-energy is lost at each transfer
ecosystem functions and nutrients.
P - phosphorous
C - carbon
N - nitrogen.
-required for growth, maintenance, and reproduction of organisms.
-cycling of each element is a major functions of ecosystems.
Phosphorous...
occurs in mineral deposits and marine sediments
-released thru weathering of rock
-assimilate thru plants and recycled thru ecosystem
-unassimilated P washed into oceans, where remains dissolved till deposited into sediments
nitrogen. cycle of this summarized by 4 chemical transformations.
1. fixation.
2. ammonification
3. nitrificaton.
4. denitrification.
fixation of nitrogen.
speclized bacteria reduce atmospheric nitrogen to biologically useful forms with enzyme nitrogenase either ammonium or as nitrate.
ammonificaton.
organic nitrogen compounds used by plants to construct proteins. proteins eventually metabolized and excess nitrogen is excreted to environment as waste.
nitrification.
ammonia excreted as waste can further metabolized by microbes in soil. the oxidation of ammonia to nitrite, from mitrite to nitrate.
denitrification.
in soil under anaerobic conditions, microbes convert nitrates back to N gas.
Carbon.
foundation of all organic molecules. atmospheric C compounds such as carbon dioxide and methane influence global climate.
3 classes of processes cause carbon to cycle thru ecosystems.
1. photosynthesis/respiration
2. exchange of CO2 between atmosphere and oceans.
3. precipitation of carbonate sediments in oceans
links between N and C cycles.
dependent on global distribution of land cover:
-photosynthesis requires N.
-N limiting in most ecosystems.
-fixation and storage of C closely linked to N cycle
as vegetation develops..
soil nitrogen content tends to increase, organic carbon content increase, fraction of phosphorous available decreases
distrubance increases.. and...
nutrient losses from ecosystems
effects of excess nutrients.
disrupt ecosystem function and structure.
-terrestrial ecosystems, lead to reduced species richness, simplified community structure
-favor few competitively dominant species
-aquatic evironment: can come from human and natural sources.
effects of excess of nutrients in aquatic environments..
population booms and death of primary producers = huge detritus inputs. decomposition of dead organisms strips waters of oxgyen.
-extreme: water can become hypoxic
what are the characteristics of club mosses?
•Small, evergreen groundcover
•Creep with a stolon (runner)
•Perennial plants
•Simple leaves, narrow and pointed with no petiole
•Leaves produced in whorls of 4 to 16
•Alternation of generations life history
•Fireworks!!
ground cedar
shining clubmoss
stiff clubmoss
tree clubmoss
wolfs claw clubmoss
What is soil?
Is a complex mixture of inorganic and organic materials with variable amounts of air and water.
Inorganic Material
clay, silt, sand, gravel and rocks
Organic
Of living and non-living plant and animal material.
Living organisms- insects, earthworms and microorganisms
non-living- plants and animals waste and residues(remains of dead bodies) in differnt stages of decompoition.
Soil is broken down into six general features
1.texture
2.structure
3.acidity
4.gas content
5.biotic composition
6.water content
What is a specie? (organism)
All members of all populations of one "type" of organism.
What is a population?
All members of one specie living together and interbreeding.
What is an ecosystem?
All population (biotic) plus all abiotic factors.
What is abiotic factor?
A nonliving condition or thing
example: climate or habitat, that influences or affects an ecosystem.
What is a biotic factor?
A living thing, as an animal or plant, that influences or affects an ecosystem.
What is a biome?
The largest ecosystem defined by large geographical areas and distinguished by rainfall and temperature.
example: Tundra, dessert, tropical rainforest
What is a biosphere?
The areas of the earth that contains life.
What is ecology?
Study of ecosystems.
What is biomass?
Mass of the living organism.
bio=life mass=amt of matter
What is an autotroph?
"self feeders" either photosynthetic or chemosynthetic.
What is a heterotroph?
"other feeders" gets energy from other organisms.
What is a primary producer?
Photosynthetic organisms building biomass using sunlight.
What are primary consumers (herbivores)?
Organisms that obtain their food by consuming primary producers.
example: most protist, all animals and mistletoe (plant eat other plants)
What are secondary consumers? (primary carnivores)
Organisms that eat primary consumers.
What are tertiary consumers? (secondary carnivores)
Organisms that eat secondary consumers.
What are top predators or apex predadors?
An animal who, as an adult, has no natural predators in its ecosystem.
example: great white shark
What is detritus?
Material from decomposed, unconsumed plants and dead remains of animals and waste products.
What are detritivores?
Consumers that get their energy from detritus.
What are decomposers?
Detritivores that break down dead organisms from all trophic levels.
What is a food chain?
A linear depiction of energy flow, with each organism feeding on and deriving energy from the preceding organism.
What is a food web?
A system of food chains in which there are multiple links between species.
What is a trophic level?
Each feeding level in the food chain.
Trophic levels
Tertiary consumer
(secondary carnivore)
Secondary consumer
(carnivore)
Primary consumer
(herbivore)
Primary producer
(autotrophs)
What is a phytophankton?
Plant like plankton. Photosynthetic protests in plankton.
What is plankton?
Informal group of organims that includes swimming protists, bacteria, viruses, and small animals.
What are zooplankton?
Aquatic organisms such as worms, copepods, tiny jellyfish, and small larvae of invertebrates and fishes.
What is Gross Primary Productivity (GPP)?
Production of photoshynthetic organisms. It's equivalent to the carbon fixed during photosynthesis.
What is Net Primary Productivity (NPP)?
It is gross primary production minus the energy released during cellular respiration of photosynthetic organisms.
What is Secondary Productivity?
The gain in the biomass of heterothophs and decomposers.
Pyramid of Numbers
The number of individuals decreases at each trophic level.
example: oak tree, caterpillar
Pyramid of Numbers
The number of individuals decreases at each trophic level.
For example: in glassland, there may be hundred of plants /sm, dozens of inseccts that feed on the plants, a few spiders feeding on the insects, and birds that feed on the spiders.
Inverted Pyramid of Numbers
One single producer such as an oak tree can support hundreds of herbivorous beetles, caterpillars, and other primary consumers, which in turn, may support thousands of predators.
Pyramid of Biomass
Weighing the organisms in each trophic level.
example: an oak tree weighs more than all its herbivores and predators combined. Shows an upright pyramid.
What is standing crop?
The totall biomass in an ecosystem at any one point in time.
Inverted Pyramid of Biomass
Example: in some marine and lake systems, the biomass of phytoplankton supports a higher biomass of zooplankton. This is possible because the rate of production of phytoplankton biomass is much higher than that of zooplankton and the small phytoplankton processes large amounts of energy.
Pyramid of Energy
Shows the rate of energy production rather than standing crop.
It is NEVER inverted.
Example: howard Odum's energy pyramid for Silver Springs also shows that large amounts of energy pass through decomposers, despite their relatively small biomass.
The higest amounts of free energy are found at the lowest trophic levels.
1st and 2nd Laws of thermodynamics
1) Energy can not be created nor destroyed
2) During energy transformation much of the useful energy is lost to the system.
10% Rule
Only 10% of the energy in any trophic level passes into the next level.
What is Biomagnification?
The tendency of certain chemicals to concentrate in higher tropic levels in food chains.
example: in a Lake Michigan food chain, the highest concentration of DDT was found in gulls, tertiary consumers that feed on fishes that, in turn, eat small insects. The biomagnification of DDT in lipids causes its concentration to increase at each successive link in the food chain.
What is Bioaccumulation?
Refers to the accumulation of substances such as pesticides, or other organic chemicals in an organism.
Example: accumulation of DDT in Lake Michigan food chains.
seed
embryo & nutrients in a protective coat
ovule (consists of)
megasporangium
megaspore
protective integuments
conifers
cone-bearing gymnosperms
flower
angiosperm structure for sexual reproduction
--> fruit
sepal
encloses flower
(green underpart)
stamen
produces pollen
filament
anther-where pollen is produced
carpel
ovary > ovule
style
stigma-where pollen is recieved
fruit
mature ovary that protects seed and aids in disperal
fleshy or dry
embryo sac
female gametophyte that develops > ovule > ovary
cross pollination
pollination between different plants
micropyle
pore to the inside of ovary
double fertilization
2 sperm goes into ovule
1st fertilizes egg
2nd goes to central cell and initiates development of endosperm (fruit)
cotyledons
seed leaves
basal angiosperms
less derived and include flowering plants from old lineages
amboralla trichopoda, water lilies, and star anise
magnoliids
share traits with basal angiosperms but evolved later
magnolia, laurels, blakc pepper plants
monocots
1/4 of angiosperms
1 cotyledon
parallel veins
scattered vascular tissue
fibrous roots
1 opening in pollen grain
floral organ in 3x
eudicot
2/3 of angiosperms
2 cotyledons
netlike veins
rings of vascular tissue
taproot (mainroot) present
3 openings in pollen grain
floral organs in 4x/5x
Hemiparasites
Parasites of the xylem to use water and minerals from host
Have photosynthetic leaves to make food
Holoparasites
Parasites of both xylem and phloem
Usually have small, yellowish scaly leaves incapable of photosynthesis
6 organisms that cause plant diseases
Bacteria
Stramenopiles (OOmycetes)
Fungi (Asco, Deutero, Basidio)
Viruses
Nematodes
Parasitic Plants
Mycotoxins are
compounds produced by fungi while infecting plants that are toxic to humans and animals
4 Mycotoxins
Aflatoxin
Vomitoxin
Fumonisins
Ergot alkaloid toxins
Vomitoxin
caused by...
causes...
Deoxynivalenol
Giberella Ear Rot of Corn, Head Blight of Wheat
Animals vomit and refuse to eat
Fumonisins
caused by
causes
Fusarium moniliforme
Fusarium Ear Rot of Corn
Blind Staggers, pulmonary edema, cancer, death
Ergot alkaloid toxins
caused by
causes
Claviceps purpurea
Ergot of Rye, St Anthony's Fire, Gangrene
What are bryophytes?
Land plants that are non-vascular. They don't have flowers, nor do they produce seeds.
How do bryophytes reproduce?
Bryophytes reproduce via spores.
The bryophytes consist of three groups:
The Hepatophyta (liverworts), Anthocerotophyta (hornworts), and Bryophyta (mosses).
What is an antheridium?
A haploid structure or organ producing and containing male gametes.
What is an archegonium?
A haploid structure or organ producing and containing female gametes.
What are dioicous bryophytes?
Bryophytes that produce only antheridia or archegonia on a single plant body.
What are monoicous bryophytes?
Bryophytes that produce both antheridia and archegonia on the same plant body.
what are bryophytes?
•Primitive plants
•Reproduce by spores
•Alternation of generations
•Most have stems and leaves
•Lack vascular tissue
•Lack root system
what are the substrate tolerance for bryophytes?
rock, wood and soil
what are the types of growth forms for bryophytes?
turf
cushion- stems packed together conserve H20
mat- grows on rotting logs
weft- starts growing straight then curving
fan- grows on tree trunks, (tropical region)
dendroids- look like trees
what is apocarp?
means upright growth
what is pleurocarp?
means relaxed growth
what is the protonema?
thread-like chain of cells that forms the earliest stage of a bryophyte life cycle
what is a rhizoid?
structure in plants, fungi and some other organisms that functions like a root in support or absorption