Biology

Proteins that control biochemical reactions

Enzyme that breaks down glucose

Enzyme that turns hydrogen peroxide into water (think about the liver experiments)

Enzyme that unzips the DNA double helix in DNA replication

2nd enzyme needed in replication to fuse the free floating nucleotide to the complimentary DNA strands. Essentially glues it back together.

Builds mRNA onto the sense strand using the complimentary nucleotides

Sequence of amino acids coded by DNA, formed by RNA and held together by peptide bonds.

The regular folding of the amino acid chain.

• Alpha helix (like curls)
• Beta pleated sheets (folded on top of itself)

Irregular/sporadic folding of he secondary structures, creating glob like proteins. Side (R) group decides

• Not in all structures
• Interaction between two strong proteins

• 1. Change pH value
• 2. Change Chemical gradiant
• 3. Change Temperature
• Must break quadtrinary, tertiary, seconday primary (in that order)

The process of how the protein obtains its 3-D shape determined by the amino acid sequence

Can be ineffective or develop different/toxic functions

20 kinds all interact differently, some attract some repel

Feces/contaminated water supplies

Dehydration, turning blue, lowers blood pressure and thickens blood

• Lives on bodies of copepods.
• Cross contamination

• Cholorine
• Rehydration

Binds to small intestine

• Classic Strain (Rare, treated by cholorine)
• El Tor Strain (most common, mild cholorine resistance
• Bengal strain (most deadly, resistant to cholorine)

Place where the enzyme can attach to a compound and react with it.

Attachs, inserts gene, makes cell burst. (faster)

Not immediate, genes inserted and reproduced with the cell.

Not a cell, genetic material surrounded by proteins

Takes over a cell to reproduce.

When a new virus comes off from a cell.

using the lock a key method the virus gets into the cell through the proteins on the surface.

Destruction of the cell allow the insides to escape (such as new viruses)

• Lipids
• Carbohydrates
• Proteins
• Nucleic acid

• Function: Source of energy
• Structure: 2 molecules: gycerol, 3 fatty acid tails made from C and H
• Examples: Saturated and unsaturated

• Function: Structural components for some organisms
• Structure: Monosaccharide, Disaccharide, Polysaccharide
• Examples : Glucose, sucrose, Glycogen

• Smalles unit of sugar, 3-8 atoms
• Ex. Glucose

• Combo of 2 simple sugars
• Ex. Sucrose

• Many sugars in a chain
• Ex. Glycogen

Important to maintain body weight and get necessary nutritients.

Web of chemical reactions in your body depend on metabolism

Breaking down biomolecules (also generate ATP)

Process of creating new biomolecules for yourself

• 1. Glycolsis 2 ATP net
• 2. Kreb cycle 2 ATP net
• 3. Electron transport chain 32 ATP net
• 36 total ATP

Glycolysis only 2 ATP net

Oxygen breaks down glucose which releases energy. Oxygen is also the last electron acceptor

Aerobic is more efficent and nets 36 ATP total while anaerobic only nets 2

8 steps in which glucose is broken down into 2 pyruvates (-2ATP +4ATP=2net)

Half of a glucose

Step after glycolisis when pyruvates enter the cycle to net 2 more ATP

Electrons lead through the protein chain create energy forcing H+ into the membrane, then the electrons go through the protein pump. 32 net ATP

Bi-product of anerobic respiration from the pyruvates

Bi-product of respiration

Energy created from respiration

Process a plant performs using sunlight, water carbon dioxide to create energy/nutrients

• 1. Sunlight absorbed by chlorophyll in leaves
• 2. Energy breaks down water into hydrogen/oxygen
• 3. Electrons in water gain energy
• 4. Electrons make ATP (Adenonsine Tri-Phosphate)
• 5. Oxygen released through stomata

• Already have ATP/CO₂
• 1. ATP breaks down carbon dioxide bonds
• 2. Hydrogens, oxygens, carbons rebonded forming glucose
• 3. Glucose used/stored

Bacterial, no nucleus, simpler

Plant/Animal cell with a nucleus

• Photosynthesis
• Other plants/animals
• Absorb through cell walls/membranes

• Organisms living at the expense of their hosts
• ex. Tapeworms, protozoa (plasmodia causing malaria)
• Treatment: interfere with metabolism of parasite/kill it

• Mechanical damage (chewing)
• Posioning with toxins
• Robbing nutrients

• Single celled prokaryotic organisms, no nuclei or mitocondria, have a cell wall.
• Good/bad: make vitamins, keep soil fertile, cause diseases, secrete toxins, feast on nutrients, form colonies
•  Treat with antibiotics

Double helix or a twistsed ladder

Transcription copies DNA onto RNA as a messenger to the ribosomes. The mRNA is translated into protein.

Genes are strands of DNA which are processed through transciption then translation into protein.

It can either make the protein entirely ineffective or it can make it have a different possibly toxic reaction/function

The structure/chain of amino acids decides what the function of the protein is going to be

Water used to transport nutrients

Carbon dixoide

Simple sugars

100+ sugars

Used to capture sunlight and photosynthesis

Oxygen

Holes in the leaf allowing gas exchange

Brings water/dissolved nutrients to plant

Transports sugars/other nutrients through the plant

Pigment absorbing sun energy from cholorplast

Moves water/food

Energy from the sun

ATP

C₆H₁₂C₆

• Must heal
• Must grow
• Must require nutrients
• Must reproduce
• Must respond to stimuli
• Must be made of cells
• Must be made of organic material
• Must die

 climate change and hibernation

Monosaccharide found in plants

Smallest unit of an element which can be alone or in combination

Positive particle in the nucleus

Neutral particle in the nucleus

Negative particle outside of the nucleus

Center of the atom where protons/neutrons are found

Result of 2+ atoms joining

Charged atom

Bond occuring with metals/non-metals of - and +

Bond between non-metals where electrons are shared

Base of everything that isn't combined

• Made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen sulfur, nitrogen and phosphorus
• Makes up structural components of organisms
• transports things
• Made for 2 amino acids by peptide bonds
• ex. Keratin

Purposefully depreiving your body of necessary nutrients

WHen electrons are lost

Process of creating energy

Fluid insde of the membrane

Respires

Specialized compartments that carry out important functions for the cells

Highway for proteins

Makes/transports lipids

Packages proteins

Breaks down unwanted molecules

Protects cell, shapes cell and decides what goes in/out

Protects plant cells

Organelle that captures sunlight/energy

Organelle that stores material

Where proteins are made

Tough flexible framework that helps the cell in movement, part of the cytoskeleton

(Gases only) movement of molecules from high to low density

Diffusion of water in and out of cells

Substances pass through transport proteins but from low to high density, requiring ATP

• A. Forms channels that ions diffuse through
• B. Binds to molecules being transported/moves it across cell

A wasy to bring big molecules into the cell

A way for molecules to exit the cell

90% of cells' time spent growing/metabolizing , DNA replicates at the end

DNA condensed/duplicated copies are attached by protein acentromere

Where the nuclear membrane dissolves, chromosomes line up in the center of the cell and proteins attach

Energy requiered to pull apart chromosomes to other sides of the cell

Nuclear membrane reforms around DNA and organelles are distributed

Chromosomes disappear and 2 new cells are formed

Process of the cell making copies

• Interphase
• Prophase
• Metaphase
• Anaphase
• Telophase
• Cytokinesis

• Adenine and Thymine/urasell
• Guanine and Cytosine

Adenine and Guanine

Thymine and Cytosine

Nitrogen bonds

• 1. DNA helicase unzips double helicase
• 2. Nucleotides fill in complimentary bases on exposed DNA
• 3. DNA polymerase fuses nucleotides/glues DNA back

Nitrogen base, sugar and phosphate floating in the nucleus

Genetic code

Key molecules to all the functions in all living organisms

Because the DNA can't leave the nucleus it needs an intermediate molecule to take the code from the DNA to the ribosomes

• ATGC
• Double stranded
• Deoxyribose sugar
• Very stable

• AUGC
• Single stranded
• Ribose sugars
• Unstable

Process of copying DNA into mRNA

1. Cells get signal to make protein2. DNA where gene is located is unwound/split by DNA helicase3. One side of the DNA will be transcribed into mRNA4. Polymerase builds mRNA onto sense strand with complemenatry nucleotides5. mRNA is complete and mRNA breaks away from the DNA/leaves nucleus, DNA goes back together

Side of DNA transcriped into mRNA

Side not use to make mRNA

• mRNA attachs to ribosome at start codon (AUG)
• 1st codon exposed
• tRNA brings correct AA to the ribsome
• Complimentary tRNA (with anti-codon for mRNA) brings correct amino acid
• 2nd tRNA brings next amino acid
• 1st tRNA leaves
• RIbosomes move over to expose the next codon
• Repeats until reaches stop codon
• Protein sent through ER to golgi for packaging

Transfer RNA

20 represented by 3 letter abbreviations

• Microrangisms present with disease, absent when healthy
• Be able to isolate microrganisms
• Cause disease again when placed in different organisms
• Reisolate from 2nd organism

Criteria by which an organism could be determined to be an infectious agent

Bacteria, virus, parasites

• Spherical
• Rod shaped
• Helical or spiral

Unit in mRNA: set of 3 nucleotides

Chemical bond between carbon and nitrogen in a peptide linkage

Fast-spreading disease

Having widespread effect

Studt of epidemics

A DNA molecule used as to carry foreign genes into another cell

• Direct transmission (person-person)
• Indirect transmission (Person-object-person)
• Airborne transmission
• Perenteral transmission
• Blood-borne tansmission
• Food/water transmission
• Oral-fecal transmission

Extremely toxi, marked as pathogenic microorganism

Hemorrhagic fever, severe/fatal contagious illness caused by infection by virus

First experiment suggesting bacteria are capable of transferring genetic info

Detects lipids

Detects starch

Dectects protein

Detects sugar

Used to detect acid levels in liquids

Indicates carbonic acid with cloudiness

Turns yellow to indicate acid

Detects sodium hydroixe

An acid-base indicator that is yellow in acid solutions and blue in alkaline solutions

Experiment expecting no reaction

Experiment expecting the usual reaction

Go straight towards the light

Something that can be changed or varied in an experiment

• 1. Title/date
• 2. Question
• 3. Research/background
• 4. Flowchart
• 5. Hypothesis
• 6. Data adn recoring

• 7. Data recording continued
• 8. Calculations
• 9. Conclusions

• a. Summarize
• b. analyze data
• c. Compare/contrasts controls
• d. Support/contradicts hypothesis
• e. Explain possible inaccuarcies
• f. Suggest everyday application
• g. Reflection

easy to catch

• Diffusion
• osmosis
• Carrier proteins

Moving from high to low concentration

• Endo/exocytosis
• Carrier proteins

Moving from low to high

CO₂+sun+H₂O=C₆H₁₂O₆+O₂

• Sulfur
• Phosphorous
• Oxygen
• Nitrogen
• Carbon
• Hydrogen

In the nucleus allowing proteins/things through.