*the idea that knowledge is based on observations.
*data are collected that form the basis of conclusions about the nature of the world
Ways of Knowing?
intution is used to learn from the other ways of learning. problems is that numerous cognitive and motivationsl biases affect our perceptions
authority a convicing and influential source where we obtain an information
Systematic Observation
Scientists enthusiastically search for observatins that will verity their ideas about the world
they develop theories argue that existing data support their theories
can be criticized. alternatives can be suggested an data collections methods can be called into question
Goals of Psychology
1. describe behavior
2. to predict behavior
3. to determine the causes of behavior
4. to understand or explain behaviors
Pseudoscience
"fake" science in which seemingly scientific terms and demonstrations are used to back up claims that have no basis in scientific reseach
Demonstrating cause-effect relationships
To know the causes of behavior
temporal precedence: which cause precedes the effect
Covariation of cause & effect:when cause is not present, the effect does not occur
alternative explanations: there should be no other plausible alternative explanation for the relationship
Applied vs. basic research
Basic research tries to answer fundamental questions about the nature of behavior
Applied research is conducted to address issued in which there are practical problems and potential solutions
Hypothesis and Theories
hypothesis: is a tenative idea or question that is waiting for evidence to support or refute it
Theories: consists of systematic body of ideas about a particular topic or phenomenon. organzie and explain & secondly, generate new knowledge
Sections of Research paper
abstract: summary of the research paper
introduction: outlines the problem tht has been investigated
Method: overview of the design to prepare the reader for material that follows
Results: presents the findings
Discussion: do the result support the hypothesis
Psychological and physical harm
psychological harm in milgrams shick experiment is obvious subjects who obeyed the experimenter feel continuing remorse or begin to see themselves as cruel
physical harm: procedures that could cause some physical harm to paritcipants
Historical studies that were unethical
milgram electric shock experiment
zimbardo prison experiment
what is informed consent
potential participants in a rsearch project shoul be provided with all information that might influence theri decision of whether to participate
explanation of the purpose of the reseach
expected duration of the procedures
description of any foreseeable risk or discomforts
Debriefing
occurs after the completion of the study. opportunity for the researcher to deal with issues of witholding information, deception, and potential jarmful effects of participation
Plagiarism and other ethical violation in the presentation of research
plagiarism is using someone's work as your own
Farud is fabrication of data
The role of institutional review board
IRB (U.S. department of health and human services under regulations
is responsible for the review of research conducted within the insitution
at least 5 individuals
every college and university in the US receives funding has an IRB
Independant and Dependant Variables
Independant variable is the cause or control group
Dependent variable is the effect
Constructs and Operational definition
Constructs validity refers to the adequacy of the operational definition of a variables:
Operational definition: is the set of procedures used to measure or manipulative it( think of the samily faces of pain in text)
Relationships between variables
Four types of relationships
1. positive linear
2. negative linear
3. curvilinear
4. no relationship
Types of Validity
1. content validity is based on comparing the contect of the measure with the universe of content that defines the construct
2. predictive: research that uses a measure to predict some future beahvior
3.concurrent: relationship between the measure and a criterion behavior at the same time
4. convergent: should correlate with another measure similar shoudl converge
5. dscriminant: measure is not related to variables with which it should not be related
Reliability
refers to the consistency or stability of a measure of behavior
1. true score: which is the real score on the variable
2. measurement error
Scales of measurement
Nominal categories with no numeric scale females & males
Ordinal rank ordering
Interval numeric properties are literal
ratio zero indicates absence of variable measure
Reactivity
a measure is said to be reactive if awareness of being changes an individuals behavior
Natualistic observation and systematic obsevation
Naturalistic the researcher makes observations of individuals in their natural environment
Systematic: careful observation of one or more speicgic behaviors in a particular setting
Archival Research
involves using previously compiled information to answer research questions