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Reform: Britain
- 1815: Aristocrats held poweràTories and Whigsà Tories take overà Corn Lawà Peterloo Massacre
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Reform:
France
- Louis XVIII instituted reformà ultraroyalists and liberalsà Charles X
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Reform:
Italy
Austrian domination
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Reform: Spain
- Ferdinand VIIà reform, such as Cortesà reneged and persecuted them
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Reform: Austria
- Metternich and Germanic Confederation
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Reform:
Prussia
- King Frederick William III and reformà grew reactionaryà Burschenschaftenà Metternich and the Karlsbad Decrees of 1819
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Reform: Russia
- Alexander I made reforms until Napoleon’s defeatà reactionaryà death led to Constantine and Nicholas I, whose revolt against him led to reactionary
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Revolution of 1848: Britain
- Stable as Whigs issued Reform Act of 1832 and Poor Law and repealed Corn Law
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Revolution of 1848: France
- Charles Xà July Ordinances à July Revolutionà he fled and was replaced by Louis-Philippeà % between upper and lower class and formation of parties of Movement and Resistanceà depression led to radicals taking overà Louis-Philippe fled and moderates took overà Louis Napoleon
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Revolution of 1848: Italy
- Italian states and Guiseppe Mazzini
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Revolution of 1848: Austria
- Nationalities pushà Hungary has own legislature and armyà Czechs want sameà Gen. Windischgratz crushes themà Francis Joseph, with help of Russian army, brings Hungary back under his power
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Revolution of 1848: Germanic States
- Frederick William IV reformsà Frankfurt Assemblyà fail
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Unification (Part Two of Essay Three 1850): Britain
- Stable Victorian era as real wages increased and the conditions of the working class were better
- Henry John Temple had no preferenceà Disraeli and the Reform Act of 1867 and the Redistribution Act (secret ballot and stuff)
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Unification (Part Two of Essay Three 1850): France
Louis Napoleon
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Unification (Part Two of Essay Three 1850): Italy
- Focus on Piedmont, defeated by the Austrians; Cavourà Italian War
- Garibaldi in Southern Italyà Prussian completed unification for them
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Austria-Hungary
- Habsburg freed serfs and established centralized autocracy
- Alex von Bach= centralization of control by subordinating local privileges, with Hungary being subjected to this
- Ausgleich of 1867à free Hungary
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Russia
- Serfs were freed
- Alex II created zemstvosà people wanted that to rule onlyà populism by Alex Herzen
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Germany
- Looked to Austria and Prussia for guidanceà Zollverienà constitution that led to power in hands of rising middle classà death of Fred IVà William I and Bismarck
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