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Genome
the complete set of genes that an organism possesses
30,000-80,000 genes and 23 pairs of chromosomes
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Heritability
- proportion of observed variance in a group of individuals that can be explained or accounted for by genetic variance
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proportion of pheotypic variance that is attributable to genetic variance
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Environmentality
proportion of observed variance in a group of individuals attributable to environmental variance
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Behavioral Genetics Methods
- selective breeding
- family studies
- twin studies
- adoption studies
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Twin Studies
estimates heritability by gauging whether identical twins (MZ, 100%) are more similar than fraternal twins (DZ, 50%)
to calculate heritability: 2(rmz - 4dz)
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Adoption Studies
positive correlations between adoptive children and adoptive parents provide evidence of environmental influence
positive correlations between adopted children and genetic parents provide evidence of genetic influence
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Shared vs. Non-shared Environmental Influences
environment has influences primarily in the form of nonshared variables; shared environment has little impact
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Shared Environmental Influences
features of the environment shared by siblings in the family environment (ex. number of books in home)
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Non-shared Environmental Influences
features of the environment that differ across siblings in the family environment (ex. different friends and teachers)
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Freud - Psychic Energy
powers the mind; believed to motivate ALL human behavior
instincts (sex and aggression) are the source of psychic energy
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Freud - Hydraulic Theory
model of emotional or instinctive pressures and their release; aggression is a force that builds relentlessly without cause unless released
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Freud - Instincts
represents inborn, unconscious portion of the personality
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Freud - Life Instincts
Eros
promote positive, constructive behavior
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Freud - Death Instincts
Thanatos
responsible for aggression and destructiveness
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Freud - Pleasure Principle
psycholanalytic concept describing people seeking pleasure and avoiding suffering (pain) in order to satisfy their biological and psychological needs
driven force of the id
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Psychic Determinism
personality and behavior are determined more by psychological factors, with unconscious portions of our personality influencing thought, feeling and behavior
there is a reason behind every thought, feeling or behavior
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Freud - Personality Structure
people and born with basic needs or instincts
each person faces the task of figuring out how to meet his/her basic needs in a world that frustrates these efforts
personality develops out of a person's struggles with this task and is reflected through the way they carry out this task
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Freud - Psychoanalytic Personality THeory
concerns how people cope with their sexual and aggressive instincts within the constraints of civilized society
one part of the mind creates the urges, another has a sense of what society expects, and another tries to satisfy those urges within the bounds of reality and society
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Tripartite Personality Structure :
Id, Ego, Super-Ego
- personality has 3 parts:
- id - wants immediate satisfaction with no consideration for reality
- ego - meets the needs of the id by taking reality into account
- super-ego - inhibits the biological instincts of the id

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Freud - Intrapsychic Conflicts
occur when the id, ego, and super-ego clash
ego strives to prevent anxiety of guilt associated with conscious awareness of unacceptable id impulses
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Objective Anxiety
occurs in response to real, external threat to a person
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Neurotic Anxiety
occurs when there is direct conflict between the id and the ego
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Moral Anxiety
caused by conflict between the ego and super-ego
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Defense Mechanisms - Denial
not acknowledging that there is a problem
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Defense Mechanisms - Repression
suppressing a memory until it disappears into the subconscious
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Defense Mechanisms - Projection
putting your own beliefs or behavior onto someone else
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Defense Mechanisms - Displacement
showing emotion toward someone or something completely unrelated to that which caused the emotion
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Defense Mechanisms - Rationalization
making up explanations for something that has happened
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Defense Mechanisms - Regression
acting in a way that is not typical for your age
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Therapeutic Relationship - Patient Resistance
patient blocks memories from conscious memory
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Therapeutic Relationship - Patient Transference
the redirection of a patient's feelings for a significant person to the therapist
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Therapeutic Relationship - Repetition Compulsion
repetition of a traumatic even or its circumstances over and over again
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Five Postulates of Modern Day Psychoanalysis
1. Unconscious plays a large role in life, but is not the universal influence Freud held it was
2. Behavior reflects compromises in conflict between mental processes
3. Childhood plays an important role in persoality development, particularaly in shaping adult relationship styles
4. Mental representations of self and others guide interactions with others
5. Personality development involves not just regulating sexual and aggressive feelings, but also moving from an immature socially dependent way of relating to others to a mature independent relationship style
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Erikson's Psychosocial Theory
8 stages of psychosocial development with unique developmental teasks
developmental change occurs throughout life span
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Erikson - Identity
an inner sense of who we are, what makes us unique, feeling of wholeness and sense of continuity over time
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Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development
addresses biological, social, situational, and personal influences
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Erikson - Crisis
- must adaptively (acquire strengths and assests needed for the next stage) or maladaptively (less likely to be able to adapt to later problems) cope with each task in each developmental stage

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Object Relations Theory
emphasizes social relationships and their origins in childhood
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Object Relations Theory Assumptions
internal wishes, desires, and urges of child not as important as developing relationships with significant others
others, particularly the mother, become internalized by the child in the form of mental objects
first social attachments that infant develops form prototypes for all future meaningful relationships
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Attachment
a strong affectional bond between infants and their caregivers
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Secure Attachment
infant feels safe around their caregiver, enjoy exploring new environments, and often use the caregiver as a "safe home base"
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Insecure/Avoidant Attachment
infant doesn't rely on their caregivers for security and often avoids close contact with them
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Insecure/Ambivalent Attachment
infant often engages in continuous efforts to maintain contact with their caregiver, and often cling to them in new situations
inhibited and show signs of fear
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Early Attachments - Bowlby and others
early attachment experiences and reactions of the infant to parents, especially the mother, form "working models" for later adult relationships
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Motives
internal states that arouse and direct behavior towards a specific object or goal that are based on NEEDS
- often caused by a deficit or lack of something

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Abraham Murray - Need
a potentiality or readiness to respond in a certain way under certain given circumstances
associated with a specific intention or desire, a particular set of emotions, specific behavioral patterns, and a description with trait names
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The Big 3 - Need for Achievement
these people prefer activities that offer some, but not too much of a challenge
enjoy tasks where they are personally responsible for the outcome
prefer tasks where feedback on their performance is available
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The Big 3 - Need for Power
these people are interested in controlling situations and controlling others
do not deal well with frustration and conflict
show strong stress responses, including high blood pressure
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The Big 3 - Need for Intimacy
these people spend more time during the day thinking about relationships
report more pleasant emotions when around people
smile, laugh, make more eye contact
start up conversations more frequently and write more letters
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Humanistic Psychology
emphasis is on the role of choice and personal responsibility, and the human need for growth and realizing one's full potential
human nature is positive and life-affirming
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Abraham Maslow - Self-Actualization
the process of becoming more and more what one idiosyncratically is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming
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Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
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Carl Rogers
(fully functioning person)
focused on ways to foster and attain self-actualization
fully functioning person - person who is en route toward self-actualization
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Carl Roger's Theory
key to development of unconditional positive self-regard and moving toward self-actualization is the receipt of unconditional positive regard from parents and significant others
many parents and significant others place conditions of worth on when one will receive positive regard-conditional positive regard
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Rogerian Client-Centered Psychotherapy Conditions
must be an atmosphere of genuine acceptance of the client by the therapist
therapist must express unconditional positive regard for the client
empathic understanding - client must feel that the therapist understands him or her
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