Changes in the gene activity that do not involve alterations to the genetic code and are passed down to at least one successive generation
Define epigenome.
Sits on top of genome; switches genes on and off
A given genotype can give rise to a different phenotype depending on _______ conditions
enviornmental
______ _______ erases many of the epigenetic tags that would be passed down through generations
Epigenetic reprogramming
Types of epigentic tags can be passed from parent to offspring via _____ _____
behavioral stressors
In order to provide a convincing case for epigentic inheritance, an epigenetic change must be observed in the ___ generation
Fourth
Because identical twins develop from a single zygote, they have the same _____.
genome
What is plasticity?
Process by which an organism modified its behavior, morphology, and physiology in response to changing enviornments
Plasticity during early development can be adaptive if...
it increases survival during the embryonic stage of life
Plasticity during early development have important fitness consequences because they can lead to permanent or profound changes in _____ or ______
morphology or physiology
Mature phenotype from different _______ differ from each other with regard to the expression of the particular _______
Environment
Explain how some grasshoppers have adapted to their environment
The amount of light reflected from the ground surface decides what color the grasshopper will be after its next molt. The adaptation improves the ability of the animal to hide itself by camoflouge
Heavy babies are at _____ risk of disease
reduced
_____ - birth weight babies are more likely to have CVD, stroke and diabetes
Low
In a study where human growth was followed from birth to adulthood, it was found that _______ ____ prepare an individual for a certain course during life
environmental cues
Mothers with a small pelvis had (larger/smaller) babies with (increased/decreased) offspring risk of stroke and CVD
smaller; increased
Evidence suggests that....
A mother having a small pelvis is linked to her own poor nutrition as a child, thus indicating an _______ effect
epigenetic
People who grow up in impoverished conditions tend to have.....?(3)
-smaller body size
-lower metabolic rate
-a reduced level of behavioral activity
"______ ______" results in baby being born with adaptations, such as small body and modified metabolism, helping to cope with the stressed environment
Weather Forecast
Data shows that babies exposed to ____ _____ during last trimester had increase in diabetes in adult life
food shortages
In which 3 ways can organisms express effects to adaptive responses to their environment during development and in life?
- immediate
- short term
- may be expressed in offspring
Changes in the gene activity that do not involve alterations to the genetic code are passed down to at least one successive generation are known as
Epigenetics
Sits on top of genome; switches genes on and off
Epigenome
The presence of ____ groups that attach to DNA strands can tightly coil genes around histones, thereby making the gene ______ and inhibiting the expression of the gene (can be good or bad thing)
Methyl
Unreadable
What are the two groups of low birth weight babies?
- Premature or Preterm
-Small for date infants
Name the four variables of social factors in regards to low birth weight babies
- Occupation of family
-Mother's educational status
-Family support
-Ethnic background
Coal mining is one example of how ________ factors can contaminate the growth and weight of a fetus
Environmental
_______ refers to mental disorders, mental distress and abnormal/maladaptive behavior
Psychopathology
There is an increase in ___ matter and ___ matter in the brain during adolescence
grey matter and white matter
Abnormal hormone levels can augment gene expression and result in cell death. This is known as _____
Apoptosis
Hormone deficiency can lead to failed ___ _______ critical for proper brain development
gene expression
(Hormone and Neurotransmitter Changes)
The HPG axis controls the rise of _____ during puberty
hormones
(Hormone & Neurotransmitter Changes)
HPA axis plays an important role in ____ response
Stress
Sensitivity to stress is high in adolescence because of declining _____ levels
Cortisol
______ are an important part of human variation and evolution because they introduce new traits
Mutations
If a mutation provides an advantage....
it is more likely to spread throughout a population, particularly if their geographic area is isolated
What is the protein responsible for the replication of our DNA?
DNA polymerase
What are 2 the two main reasons for DNA mutations during replication?
Translocations or Deletions
DNA can also be mutated by environmental factors such as _____ and _____
Chemicals and Radiation
Environmental Factors that cause mutations can do two things:
They can damage DNA by altering nucleotide bases
They can break the bonds between oxygens and phosphate groups
The ____ _____ is a strain of Yersinia pestis that was largely transmitted through fleas and rats
Black Plauge
Malaria is a virus that is generally transmitted through
mosquito bites
____ ____ _____ is a blood disease that causes blood cells to develop into a sickle shape
Sickle Cell Anemia
Prenatal exposure to famine is strongly correlated with
- Decreased cognitive and behavioral function and increased neurodevelopmental disorders and congenital abnormalities of the nervous system
What trend can be seen between life opportunities and having a low education?
- lowered socioeconomic status
-lower earnings
- poorer health
Increase instances of schizophrenia correlated to prenatal exposure to ______
famine
"Morality did not occur randomly... frail and less healthy individuals tended to die first while healthier and stronger individuals had a better chance of survival"
This is referring to what?
The Wood's Hypothesis
What re the 3 Domains of autism?
-Social deficits
-Impaired language and communication
-Stereotyped and repetitive behaviors
Difficulty with verbal communication, repetitive behaviors, awkward social interaction, intellectual disability, unprimed fine motor skills, short attention span, and physical health are characteristics of
autism
Breast fed infants were _____ than bottle fed infants in childhood and adulthood
taller
Most birth defects occur prior to conception and are due to abnormalities of _____ and ______
chromosomes and genes
Name the 3 categories of pre-conception birth defects
- chromosomal
-single gene defects
- multifactorial disorders
(birth defects)
Trisomies are indicative of ____ ______
extra chromosome
What is the most common form of mental retardation?
Down Syndrome
What are the 3 categories of single gene defect mutations?
- Autosomal dominant
- Autosomal recessive
- X-linked
Autosomal Recessive -
how many parents are carriers?
what is the mutant gene known as?
how likely is each child to inherit the disorder?
Both parents are carriers
Each child has a 25% chance of inheriting the disorder
Autosomal Dominant -
how many parents are carriers?
what is the mutant gene known as?
how likely is each child to inherit the disorder?
One parent
Dominant Inheritance
Each child has a 50% chance of inheriting the disorder
X linked mutations are inherited by _____ from their ____. The likelihood of inheriting it is __%
males ; mother ; 50%
an example of an X linked gene mutation is _____
hemophilia
_______ birth defects are caused by a combination of genes and environmental exposures.
Multifactoral
Multifactorial birth defects are characterized by the malformation of ______ or _____
a single organ system
or
limb
Congenial heart defects, cleft lip or palate, clubfoot and dysplasia are examples of _____ birth defects
multifactorial
What are the five categories of Post conception birth defects?
- Single system defects
- Disruption
- Deformation
- Dysplasia
- Sequence
___ ______ birth defects are usually non-genetic and are caused by intrauterine enviornmental factors
Post Conception
These are characteristics of which type of birth defects?
- occurs within the first 8 weeks of gestation
- constitute largest group of defects affecting single organ systems or region of the body
-Inherited as polygenic traits with low risk of re-occurrence
Single System Defects
These are characteristics of which type of birth defects?
- Congenital abnormalities occuring in consistent patterns known as syndromes
- Occur in two or more systems in the body associated with mental retardation
Multiple Malformation Functions
What is a "disruption" and what is the effect?
Disruption is a destruction in part of the fetus and creates facial clefts and central nervous defects
______ is due to abnormal intrauterine molding and involves musculoskeletal system resulting in spinal bifida and positional deformities of legs and feet
Deformation
_____ refers to abnormal cellular function in specific organ or tissue type. It is usually created by single gene defects
Dysplasia
_______ is a form of short limbed dwarfism. Most have average trunk size with short limbs, limited range of elbows and enlarged head.
Achondroplasia
What are the 3 environmental causes of birth defects?
- what we eat
- where we live
- how we live
A developing baby is particularly vulnerable to environmental factors between __ - __ week of pregnancy
5th to 10th
List and give details on the 3 categories of environmental factors that relate to birth defects.
Chemical Sources - drugs, alcohol, caffeine
Biological Sources - nutrition, microorganisms
Physical Sources - heat, radiation, pollution
A drug or substance capable of interfering with the development of an embryo that may lead to birth defects or developmental abnormalities is known as
Teratogens
What is congenital hydrocephalus?
excessive fluid in the infants brain
___ % of adult body weight is gained during puberty
50
About ___ % of total bone mass is established during pubertal years
90%
Menarche and accrual of bone mineral are related. (True/False)
True
Manually adding new DNA to an organism with the goal of adding one or more traits that are not already found in that organism is known as...
Genetic Engineering
What is a transgene?
a section of genetic material from one organism which appears in the DNA of another organism
What are the goals of Genetic Engineering? (4)
- decrease genetic disorders
- improve cognitive abilities
- decrease susceptibility to disease
- improve fitness/ survivability
What are the two types of genetic engineering done in humans?
Somatic and Germline
Which type of genetic engineering targets the genes in specific organs and tissues of the body?
Somatic
What type of genetic engineering targets the genes in eggs, sperm or very early embryos which ultimately affects every cell in the body of the resulting individual and are passed on to all future generations?
Germline
Extra Mitochondrial DNA (mDNA) refers to
a child contained of DNA from mother, father and donor
Experience _____ traits are "common to the human species" ex- sound, language, opportunities to move/manipulate objects
Experience Expectant
____ _____ refers to the overproduction of synapses in specific areas of the brain at specific times
Experience Expectant
_____ ______ involves modifying existing synapses or generating new ones based on individual experience
Experience Dependent
Experience _____ is typically associated with learning and memory and happens over a lifetime (culture, language, school, job skills, leisure activities, sports)
Experience Dependent
When stress occurs, _____ is released
cortisol
Methylation controls genes which terminate _____ _____
stress response
________ of a child may cause methylation.
Maltreatment
Stress affects the experience ______ plasticity process of memory
dependent
Stress damages the _______ while it enhances connections in other parts of the brain
hippocampus
______ can be effected from chronic stress through the action of cortisol on the hippocampus
Memory
Development of music skills training can affect ____ development in children