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Oxidative phosporylation
better energy
metabolic pathway that uses energy released by the oxidation of nutrients to produce ATP
Terminal process of cellular respiration
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pH gradient
measurement of H+ concentration
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passive diffusion
low [ ] of SOLUTES to high [ ]
-
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hypertrophy
increase muscle
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hyperplasia
increased cell production
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metaplasia
mature differentiated cell transforming into another differentiated cell.
Can be reversable
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Dysplasia
mature cell transformation that is irreversable
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Reversible cell injury
2 patterns of cell injury
impairs cell function but does not cause cell death
cellular swelling and fatty change
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cellular swelling
impairment of the energy dependent Na/K ATPase membrane pump
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Fatty change
linked to intracellular accumulation of fat
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**Infarction**
Tissue death from deprivation of arterial blood and therefore deprivation of O2
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What does Hypoxia do to aerobic and anaerobic glycolosis?
aerobic= metabolism stops and less ATP is made. NA/K pumps can't work fast enough and cells swell with H2O
Anaerobic= is used and therefore Lactic acid is produced with damages cells.
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most common free radical?
O2
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Ischemia causes Mitoc. damage that leads to...
anaerobic glycolysis and calcium deposits
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apoptosis
programmed cell death
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necrotic cell death
unregulated cell death caused by injury, swelling, rupture, inflammation, etc.
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dry gangrene
lack of arterial blood supply but venous supply can carry fluid away from tissue.
will dry out and fall off
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wet gangrene
lack of venous flow lets fluid accumulate in the tissue.
gross, stinky, and needs surgical amputation.
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Gas gangrene
C-diff infection produces toxins and H2S bubbles. Needs amputated immediatly
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codon
each set of 3 specific amino acids (DNA/genes)
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Does DNA leave the nucleus during replication?
NO, mRNA leaves
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What is substituted for Thymine in RNA?
Uracil
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Introns vs. Exons
Introns are the "fake/extra" RNA sections that are chopped off before leaving the nucleus
Exons are the actual genes left after leaving the nucleus
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mitosis
exact replication of parent cell (liver cell into another liver cell)
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Telomeres
- DNA sequences at the ends of the chromosomes.
- Like a string that is used up little by little
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Meiosis
chromosomes duplicate
production of two exact same daughter cells containing 1/2 of original cell
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crossing over
when chromosome pairs line up during meiosis, they can exchange ends
each of the four resulting gametes will have a different combination of genes
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Linkage
Two genes that are close together on the chromosome are called "linked"
linked genes are rarely separated by crossing-over and therefore are usually inherited together
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homozygous
all of your copies of a gene are alike
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heterozygous
all of your gene copies differ
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carrier
you are heterozygous for a recessive trait but do not show it
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hemizygous
you have only one copy of a gene
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polygenic
many genes could effect one trait
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multifactorial
both multiple genes and the environment could effect one trait
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epistasis
one gene could mask the effect of another
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complementary
one gene might depend on another
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collaborative
2 genes together might create a new phenotype
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Marfan
connective tissue disorder (spider hands disease)
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2 Autosomal DOMINATE disorders
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Brugata syndrome
unexpected sudden death
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2 autosomal RECESSIVE disorders
- PKU (phenylketonuria)
- Tays-sachs
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PKU
lack of enzyme that converts phenylalanine into tyrosine, causing mental retardation
-
Tays-Sachs
Lysosomal storage disorder causing death by age 4
Both the male and female must be carriers**
-
2 sex linked disorders
Fragile x
Hemophilia
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Neoplasm
- "New Growth"
- growth is random and continuous
- they proliferate to form new tissue
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What occurs to both daughter cells of a dividing stem cell?
One daughter retains the stem cell characteristics
The other becomes a progenitor cell that proceeds through differentiation. This one has *self renewal and potency*
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3 types of stem cell potency
Unipotent
Oligopotent
Pluripotent
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Unipotent
give rise to ONE type of differentiated cell
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Oligopotent
produce small number of cells
-
Pluripotent
produce numerous cell types
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Proto-oncogenes
Normal cells that become Cancer causing agents if they mutate
Become "Oncogenes"
-
Oncogenes
Name of mutated Proto-oncogenes
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Cyclins do what in cell division?
Provide checkpoints
-
Tumor-suppressor genes
growth suppressing genes that inhibit proliferation of cells in a tumor
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Any cell can mutate
Any cell can mutate
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benign tumor
when differentiated cells mutate
Do not steal surrounding blood supply, but can harm organs by pressing on them
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Malignant tumor
when undifferentiated cell mutate, dividing rapidly
Steal surrounding blood supply
-
Naming tumors:
Benign VS. Malignant
B= tissue name + "oma"
- M= tissue name + "carcinoma" (epithelial)
- = tissue name + "sarcoma" (mesenchymal)
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Adenoma
benign tumor of gland
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Adenocarcinoma
malignant tumor of epithelial gland tissue
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osteoma
benign tumor of bone tissue
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Papilloma
benign microscopic or macroscopic finger-like projection growing on a surface
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Metastasis
Cells in a PRIMARY tumor develop ability to puncture hole into and out of blood vessel to move to another location.
Secondary tumor cells are NOT the same as primary cells.
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Allostasis
maintain stability through change
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3 stages of G.A.S
- 1. Alarm
- 2. Resistance/Adaption
- 3. Fatigue/Exhaustion
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cortisol
"stress hormone"
- regulates stress response.
- increase glucose.
- fight or flight
-
ADH is also called...
vasopressin, and it causes vasoconstriction
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Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone pathway
helps control BP during activation of the sympathetic (flight/flight) response
also stimulates thirst
-
Renin
breaks things down (proteins maybe?)
-
Signs and Symptoms of G.A.S
- elevated BP and heart rate
- increase respiration
- pupil dilation
- decreased urine, appetite, and GI motility
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3 ways stress can affect the immune system
Decrease immune cell production
Decrease thymus activity
Changing the kind of immune cells produced
-
acute stress caused damage to what?
organs
-
most significant difference between Chronic and Post-traumatic stress?
In PTS, cortisol levels are DECREASED
-
3 forms of Thermoregulation
Skin temp
core body temp
hypothalamus
-
Skin temp
surface temp
relatively unreliable
-
core body temp
reflects balance between heat gain and loss
measured with rectal thermometer
-
Hypotahalamus
thermal control center
receives info from central and peripheral receptors and compares them to a set temp point
-
what enters the brain that causes chills during a fever?
pyrogenic compounds
-
Hyperthermia
Increased temp without change in the set point of the hypothalamus
-
Difference between fever and hyperthermia
The set point of the hypothalamus raises (changes) in a FEVER but not hyperhermia
-
Hypothermia
The temp point is not set high enough
Body temp is <35° C
Signs and symptoms are hard to ID in young and old people
-
Malignant Hyperthermia: how is heat generated?
uncontrolled skeletal muscle contractions
-
elements of Hematopoeitic system
- All the blood cells and their precursors
- Bone Marrow
- Lymphoid tissue
-
Plasma has clotting factors
Plasma has clotting factors
-
Ganulocytes
BEN
- Basophils
- Eosinophils
- Neutrophils
-
Basophils
Heparin and Histamines
-
Eosinophils
allergy and parasitic infections
-
Neutrophils
Primary pathogen fighting cells
1st to rise in number during infection
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band cell
immature neutrophil
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erythropoeitin
manufactured by the kidneys
stimulates RBC production
-
Thrombopoietin
platelet production
-
granulocyte colony-stimulating factor
WBC production
-
plasma****
plays important role in nutrition and waste transport and immunity
-
Hemostasis
keeping blood in the blood stream
-
Vitamin used in the clotting factors
Vit. K
-
1st step of clotting after an injury
Vessel spasm*****
-
How does Aspirin work?
It prevents the release of thromboxane A2, NOT make platelets sticky (I think she meant slippery...)
-
What steps use Calcium in the clotting cascade?
Every step EXCEPT 1 and 2
-
Warfin mechanism
interfere with prothrombin --> thrombin reaction
-
Heparin mechanism
interfere with prothrombin --> thrombin AND fibrin --> fibrinogen reaction
-
are Warfin and Heparin clot busters?
No, only preventives
-
Intrinsic pathway is activated by what?
Factor XII
-
Extrinsic pathway is activated by what?
tissue damage
-
Vascular defect does NOT necessarily mean abnormal lab values
Vascular defect does NOT necessarily mean abnormal lab values
-
thrombocytopenia
decrease in platelet levels
-
4 steps of erythopoiesis
- 1. decreased blood oxygen
- 2. Kidney secretes erythopoietin
- 3. bone marrow stimulated
- 4. RBC production
-
RBC broken down where?
Spleen
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Hematocrit
Increase of= ?
Decrease of= ?
cell to liquid ratio
Increase = dehydration, b/c higher [ ] than liquid volume
Decrease= overhydration
-
Mean Cell Volume
RBC size
micro or macroscopic
-
retuculocyte
immature RBC
-
should bilirubin be conjugated or unconjugated?
Conjugated in the liver.
Unconj. can be toxic
-
signs of RBC's broken down outside the spleen?
-
Anemia
deficiency of the number of RBC's and amount of Hgb present
-
Iron deficiency anemia
most common blood disease in infant and youth
-
4 types of anemia
- 1. Iron-deficiency
- 2. Megaloblastic= Vitamin B12 deficiency
- 3. Aplastic= bone marrow depression, fewer and smaller RBC's, plateles, and WBC's (all myeloid cells)
- 4. Chronic disease anemias
-
Vitamin B12 anemia is also called?
Pernicious anemia
-
Thalassemias
Common in Mediterranean areas
Causes hemopoietic bone enlargement and easy fractures
-
Neoplasms that arise in the bone marrow
leukemias
-
Neoplasms that arise in the lymph tissue
lymphomas
-
-
Neutropenia
decreased neutrophils
-
what will you see with myelocytic leukemias?
inappropriate bleeding and over production of abnormal monocytes and granulocytes
-
what will you see with lymphocytic leukemias?
overproduction of abnormal immune cells, spleen and lymphoid tissue inflitration
Night Sweats***
-
Difference between acute and chronic leukemias
A= sudden onset, stormy signs and symptoms, depression. Difficult to treat
C= seen in old people who have lived with and adapted to it
-
sign and symptoms of abnormal WBC production (1-7)
- fever
- fatigue
- pain
- swelling
- Increased heart rate, BP, and liver size
-
2 categories of lymphomas
Hodgkins and NON-Hodgkins
-
Hodgkins VS. Non-Hodgkins lymphomas
H= **Reed-Sternberg cells present
NH= No RS Cells. More diverse
-
Myeloma
cancer of Plasma cells
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