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Trekofstarsx
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Neurons
- · The brain is a mesh of neurons
- · Neurons transmit
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The Synapse
- · When the action potential reaches the terminal button, vesicles release neurotransmitters
- · Neurotransmitters travel across the synapse receptors to the dendrites on the next neuron
- Have either “excitatory” or “inhibitory” effects
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Reuptake
· Neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by presynaptic neuron
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(A few) Neurotransmitters
Dopamine
Serotonin
Norepinephrine
GABA
Acetylcholine
- Reward, movement (deficient in Parkinson's)
- Regulates anxiety
- Stimulatory- Fight or flight
- Chief inhibitor
- Increases brain arousal
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Localization of brain function:
- · parts of the brain do different things
- - Important for understanding brain dysfunction
- - Important for understanding brain evolution
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Frontal Lobe
Reasoning, problem solving, movement, emotions, planning, parts of speech
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Frontal Lobe- Primary Motor Cortex
- Important for controlling fine movements (finger and toe)
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Frontal Lobe- Prefrontal Cortex
- Memory for what has happened and what you are going to do next (decision making)
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Parietal Lobe
- Movement, orientation, recognition, perception of stimuli, specialized for senses
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Parietal Lobe- Primary Somatosensory Cortex
- Has cells sensitive to touch in different body areas
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Occipital Lobe
- Visual processing
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Occipital Lobe- Blindsight
- Ability to point to or indicate visual stimulus when occipital lobe is shut down
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Temporal Lobe
- Perception and recognition of auditory stimuli, memory, and speech
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Temporal lobe- Amygdala
responds strongly to emotional situations
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Limbic System: 4 fs
Fighting, fleeing, feeding, fornicating- the 4 fs
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Hippocampus
Important for transferring short-term memory
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Sympathetic Nervous System
Prepares the body for fight or flight
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Parasympathetic Nervous System
calms the body
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Phineas Gage
- · In 1848, a 3.5-foot iron rod passed through his skull
- · Was basically fine- Initially interpreted as brain function is not localized
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Post-Conventional Level (Some adults may reach this level)
Stage 5: Social Contract orientation. Laws are social contracts. They can be changed if they no longer create the greatest good.
Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles Orientation. Moral reasoning based on concept of justice. Laws can be broken if they're unjust
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Conventional Level (Adolescents/Adults)
Stage 3: Nice boy, good girl orientation (conformity to norms of behavior. Whatever the group thinks is good is right by definition)
Stage 4: Law and order orientation. Emphasis is on doing one's duty, respecting authority, maintaining social order. The law is right because its the law
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Pre-Conventional Level
Typical of children
- Stage 1: Punishment, obedience, orientation. Whatever gets me punished is wrong
- Stage 2: Self-interest orientation. Whatever gets rewarded is good
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Kohlberg
Developed the theory of stages of moral development building off of Piaget's stages of cognitive development. Consists of three levels, with two stages per level.
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H.M.
- · Had epileptic seizures due to a childhood bike accident
- · In 1953 had much of temporal lobes removed, including hippocampi
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H.M.s Brain Damage:
- · Due to removal of hippocampi, had anterograde amnesia (could not form new memories)
- · Could learn new skills, but could not remember learning them
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Split Brain Patient
- · People with severe epilepsy can have their corpus callosum severed
- · This leaves the left hemisphere and the right hemisphere unable to communicate with each other
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Multiple Sclerosis:
- · Immune system attacks the myelin sheath
- Interferes with signal transmission
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Alzheimer’s Disease:
- · Exact cause is not known
- · Bigger sulci, smaller gyri
- · Plaques (buildup of amyloid proteins)· Tangles (Breakdown of tau proteins leads to neurofibrillary tangles)
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CNS: Consists of the brain and spinal cord
· Communicates with body by peripheral nervous system- nerves connecting the spinal cord with the rest of the body
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Contained in the Peripheral Nervous System:
1) Somatic Nervous System:
2) Autonomic Nervous System:
- 1) Connects skin to muscles
- 2) connects to heart, stomach, organs
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Cerebral Cortex: Define
Outer coating of forebrain
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Name the three major divisions of the brain
hindbrain, midbrain, forebrain
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The two hemispheres in the brain each control what?
Opposite sides of the body
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Mirror Neurons
Active when you make a movement and also when you watch someone else make a movement
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electroencephalogram (EEG)
Uses electrodes on the scalp to record rapid changes in brain electrical activities
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Corpus Callosum
Set of axons that connect the left and right hemispheres of the cerebral cortex
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MEG
Mangetoencephalograph
Records magnetic data
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positron emission tomography (PET)
- Records various activity of various brain areas emitted from injected chemicals
- uses radioactively labeled glucose
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FMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging)
- Uses magnetic detectors outside the head to compare the amounts of hemoglobin and oxygen in different areas.
- · Most active brain areas use the most hemoglobin
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Hypothalamus
Hunger, thirst, and temperature regulations
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Cerebral Cortex Sends signals to the:
1) Pons and Medulla:
2) Spinal Cord:
- 1) controls muscles of the head
- 2) controls muscles from neck down
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Cerebellum
1) Important for what type of behavior?
Important for behavior that requires aim or timing, such as tapping out a rhythm.
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Autonomic Nervous System:
Controls heart, digestive system, and other organs
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Plasticity
brain change as a result of experience
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Stem cells
1) Develop into what in certain brain areas and not others?
New neurons
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Binding Problem
How separate brain areas combine forces to produce a unified perception of a single object (hearing a piano play and identify that that piano is the piano being played)
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Glia:
Support neuron cells in many ways by insulating them, synchronizing activity among neighboring neurons, and removing waste products
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