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What are the 5 steps to the scientific method?
- 1. Observation
- 2. Hypothesis
- 3. Experimentation
- 4. Analysis
- 5. Peer review
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What is inductive reasoning?
generalize from a large number of specific observations
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What is deductive reasoning?
- (general to specific)
- assume generalizations apply to scientific observations
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What is a hypothesis?
Your idea
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What is a Theory?
Many people agree with your hypothesis
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Why are there experimental standards?
For purposes of comparisons
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What are blind experiments?
paitent doesn't know
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What are double blind experiments?
Patient and experimenter do not know
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Define biology.
life science
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What are the characteristics of living organisms?
- 1. Reproduction
- 2. Cell
- 3. metabolism
- 4. ordered in structure
- 5. growth and development
- 6. adapt
- 7. carbon based
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What is matter?
anything which takes up space and has mass
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What is energy?
ability to do work or cause change (measured in Joule, or calorie)
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What is an atom?
smallest unit of chemical element which cannot be broken down by ordinary chemical means
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What are elements?
different forms of atoms each is defined by proton number
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What are isotopes?
Variation of atomic form. Varies in terms of neutron number.
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What is a valence shell?
outermost electrons
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What is octect rule?
- 8-stable
- 7-gain 1 e
- 6-gain 2 e
- 3-5 gain or lose
- 2 lose 2 e
- 1 lose 1 e
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What is a free radical?
molecule that contains an atom that steals electrons from other molecules to complete its valence shell this causes damage to the cell
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What are chemical bonds?
bond energy determines stability
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What is a non-polar covalent bond?
occurs between atoms that have the same electroegativity
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What is electronegativity?
tendency to attract electrons
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What is a polar covalent bond?
Molecule has electrically charged sides. (Water) atoms that bond differ in elctronegativity
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What is an ionic bond?
Valence electrons are stripped from one atom by another
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What is a hydrogen bond?
temporary bond (10^-4 seconds) of hydrogen atoms due to differences in electronegativity
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What are Van der Waals interactions?
attractive forces between molecules that becomes temporarily polar (due to electrons orbiting around)
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What are chemical reactions?
Involve making and breaking chemical bonds due to differences in electronegativity and changes in energy content
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Why is water so important?
- 1. Polar- also being a liquid, water is a good solvent of other polar molecules
- 2. high specific heat - resist changes in temperature
- 3. Dissociates slightly - H20 -> H + OH
- 4. Cohesive - stacks together
- 5. Adhesive - sticks together
- 6. Water organizes non-polar molecules there by affecting the structures of proteins, DNA, and membranes
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What is a acid?
proton donors (H+)
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What is an inorganic acid?
Hydrocloric, Sulfric
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What is a organic acid
citric acid
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What is pH?
measure of H+ concentration
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What is a base?
Hydroxide donors (OH-) feels soapy to the touch
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What are buffers?
resist changes in pH by absorbing or releasing H+ (Bicarbonate)
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What are electrolytes?
Salts,acids, and bases which conduct electrical currents when placed in water due to charged particles
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What are Organic molecules?
contain carbon
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What are isomers?
Have same chemical empirical formula, however, differ in arrangement to some degree
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What are Geocentric isomers?
different dimensional structures due to inflexible double convalent bonds
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What is an Enantiomer?
Mirror image isomer
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What are carbohydrates?
energy
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What is monsacharide?
smallest carb, is sweet
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What is a disacharide?
two monosacharides sweet
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What is a polysaccharide?
Chains of monsacharides, not sweet
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Starch belongs to...
Plants
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Glycogen belongs to...
animals
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Cellulose belongs to...
plants
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Chitin belongs to...
insects
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What are lipids shaped like?
E
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Saturated fats belong to...
animals
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unsaturated fats belong to...
plants
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Peptides are made up of
amino acids
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Polypeptides are made up of...
peptides
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Proteins are made up of...
polypeptides
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What are the two structural types for proteins?
- Fibrous (tendons, ligaments)
- Globular (enzymes)
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What are the levels of structural conformation?
- 1. Primary - sequence of amino acids that compose a protein
- 2. Secondary - coiling or pleating of a protein
- 3. Tertiary- coiling if the polypeptide upon itself
- 4. Quaternary- two or more polypeptides complex to make a protien
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What is Denaturing?
When a protein falls apart (Due to heat)
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What are protein chaperonins?
proteins that fold other proteins
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What are the two nucleic acids?
- Deoxyribonucleic acids DNA
- ribonucleic acid RNA
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When did humans began to understand the cell?
1600 with the light microscope
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What are the three Domains of life?
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What distinguishes prokareotic cells?
No membrane bound internal structures
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What distinguishes Eukaryotic cells?
nuclean membrane, Membrane structures
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What are the Limits to cell size?
cells must be large enough to contain the bio materials that support life. As a cell increase in size, the ratio of volume to SA decrease, so there is less cell membrane space to feed and remove waste from the cell
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What is the cytoplasm?
area outside the nucleus but inside the plasma membrane or plamalemma
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What is the cytosol?
Contains fluid, cytoskeleton, cytoplasmic incusion
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What are Organelles?
membrane-bound functional units in cells
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What is the Endomembrane system?
includes membranes of the nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi bodies, and vesicles / vaculoes
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What is the nucleus?
Contains chromosomes
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What is chromotin?
chemical made up of chromosomes, largely protein, but also nucleic acids like DNA
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What is the nucleous?
Where genes are making RNA
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What is the function of the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum?
- 1. Have ribosomes which synthesizes proteins
- 2. passes polypeptides on to the rest of the endomembrane system
- 3. Glycosylation- attachment of carbohydrates to protein or lipid
- 4. Molecular chaperonins- protiens that fold up polypeptides
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What is the function of the Smooth endoplasmic reticulum?
- 1. Lipid synthesis (steriods)
- 2. Carbohydrates synthesis (glycogen)
- 3. Detoxification of drugs/poisons by adding OH to increase solubility
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What is the function of the Golgi Apparatus?
- 1. Secretion
- 2. Procleiolysis - breaking up larger polypeptides into smaller ones
- 3. Protein storage
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What is the function of mitochondria?
- 1. Aerobic resperation - cellular fuels are catabolized to liberate energy
- 2. Apoptosis - self destruct
- 3. own DNA RNA proteins
- 4. 2 memebranes
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What are plastids?
Differentiated by synthetic ability snf pigments photosythesis
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What are chloroplasts?
Own DNA, RNA, nakes own protiens
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What is a ribsome?
- Not an organelle
- Not surrounded by membrane
- Polypeptide sythesis
- bound-attached to ER
- free- polysomes
- Has signal recognition particle that docks ribosems to ER
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What is a vacuole?
- Storage- Starch, water
- Osmoregulation - H2O / salt balance
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What is a vesicle?
smaller sacs that store and transport material
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What is a Lysome?
- Vesicle derived from Golgi that contains hydrolytic digestive enzymes which digest proteins, fats, nucleic acids, bacteria, wastes
- Also Apoptosis (self destruct)
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What are Peroxisomes?
- Found in animal cells
- detoxify alcohol
- H2O2 -> H20 + O
- often found in Liver and kidney cells
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What is the cytoskeleton?
For support and mobility
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What are the charateristics of microtubules?
- Thick
- last for a short time
- hollow
- contribute to centrioles and flagella
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What are the functions of microtubules?
- 1. motility - compose eukaryotic flagella and cilla
- 2. Chromosomes movement
- 3. organize cytoplasm
- 4. cell structure
- 5. Distribution of organelles
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What are the characteristics/functions of microfilaments?
- Thin
- Cytoskeleton
- Ameboid movement
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What is Cytoplasmic streaming?
Circular flow if cytoplasm often seen in plant cells due to actin-myosin interactions
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What are intermediate Filaments?
- intermediate in size
- made up of keratin to support cell shape
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What do cells use for mobility?
- Cilia - numerous shorter, transport material externally
- Flagella- less numerous, long
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What is the basal body?
is similar to structure of a centriole, anchors the flagellum or cilium
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What is a centriole?
Helps organize cell division?
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What is the Extracellular matrix?
- Animals- have strong collegen fibers that hold cell positions
- Plant- cell wall, secondary cell wall my also occur
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What is the purpose of inter cellular junctions?
connect cells
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What are tight junctions?
hold cells together
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What are gap junctions?
donut hole, rapid exchange of material
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What are Desmosomes?
connect cells loosely together and allow for material exchnage
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What makes up the plamelemma?
Integral proteins, phosopholiids, hydrophilic, hydrophobic, peripheral proteins
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Functions of phosopholipids?
Amphipathic, rotate, steriods
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What are integral proteins?
- Amphipatic,
- Functions-
- transport
- enzymatic activity
- signal transduction
- cell-cell recognition
- intercelluar joining
- attachment to cytoskeleton and ECM
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What is diffusion?
random movement of molecules the tendency of movement from higher concentrations to lower concentrations
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What is osmosis?
Diffusion of water through semi permeable membrane
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What is hypertonic?
Higher concentration of solute? (water leakes out)
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What is hypotonic?
Lower concentration of solute (water leaks in)
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What is isotonic?
YOU SHALL NOT PASS nothing allowed through
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What is carrier-mediated transport?
- 1. Facilitated diffusion-passive
- 2. Aquaporin - integral-membrane protein that facilitates water diffusion
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What is carrier-mediated active transport?
Allows movement up the concentration gradient (energy required)
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What are symporters?
Two materials go one way
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What are antiporters?
one material goes one way another material the other way
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What are Ligand-gated channels?
open with reception of a chemical(the ligand)
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What are voltage channels?
open based on changes in electrical charge
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What are integrated multiple transport systems?
using several means of cellular transport
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What is exocytosis?
large particle exchange out
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What is endocytosis?
Large particle exchange in
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What is phagocytosis?
Solid endocytosis
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What is pinoctosis?
liquid endocytosis
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What is kinetic energy?
Light, heat, mechanical, electrical energy
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What is potential energy?
Chemical energy
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What are the first 2 laws of thermodynamics
- First- energy cannot be created or destroyed, but can be transformed or transferred
- Second - every energy transformation results in the reduction of free(usable) energy
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What is exergonic?
Net release of energy (Aerobic respiration)
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What is Endergonic?
net absorption of energy (photosynthesis)
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What is anabolic?
synthesis of larger molecules from smaller one
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What is catabolic?
break down of large molecules
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What are the two the pathways involved in changes in energy?
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What are the two pathways involved in changes in matter?
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How do animals and plants store energy?
- Animal-glycogen, saturated fats
- Plants - starch, unsaturated fats
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