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adaptability
- our capacity to learn new behaviors that help us cope with changing circumstances
- may be nature's most important give to us
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learning
a relatively permanent behavior change due to experience
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three types of learning
- classical conditioning
- operant conditioning
- observational learning
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how do we learn?
- by association
- This was Aristotle's conclusion, of which John Locke and David Hume echo in agreement
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associative learning
- learning that certain events occur together
- The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and it's consequences (as in operant conditioning)
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successful adaptation requires:
Both nature (the needed genetic predispositions) and nurture (a history of appropriate learning)
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conditioning
the process of learning associations
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classical conditioning
- a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
- Involves respondent behavior
- Ex: a flash of lightning signals an impending crack of thunder, fo when lightning flashes nearby, we start to brace ourselves
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operant conditioning
we learn to associate a response (our behavior) and it's consequences and thus to repeat acts followed by good results and avoid acts followed by bad results
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observational learning
to learn by watching others... learning from others' experiences
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Ivan Pavlov
- a psychologist, explored the phenomenon we call classical conditioning
- earned Russia's first Nobel Prize in 1904
- his work provided a basis for later behaviorists like John Watson
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behaviorism
- the view that psychology:
- (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior w/out reference to mental processes.
- Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not (2)
- influenced by John B. Watson's ideas ~ psychology should be an objective science based on observable behavior
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Watson and Pavlov shared both a disdain for
- "mentalistic" concepts (such as consciousness)
- a belief that laws of learning were the same for all animals, whether dogs or human
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neutral stimulus
(NS) in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning
Ex: for Pavlov's dogs, the originally neutral tone. the event the dog could see or hear but didn't associate w anything
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unconditioned response/stimulus
- (UR) in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth
- Ex: Food in the mouth automatically, unconditionally, triggers a dog's salivary reflex
- Thus, Pavlov called the food stimulus an unconditioned stimulus
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unconditioned stimulus
(US) in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally - naturally and automatically - triggers a response
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conditioned response
(CR) in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)
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conditioned stimulus
(CS) in classical conditioning, a previously neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response
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Conditioned = ? / unconditioned = ?
- Conditioned = learned
- unconditioned = unlearned
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five major conditioning processes
- acquisition
- extinction
- spontaneous recovery
- generalization
- discrimination
- "Act excited so Gina disappears"
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Michael Domjan
showed how CS can signal another important biological event by conditioning the sexual arousal of male quail
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acquistion
- in classical conditioning, the initial learning
- the initial stage when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response.
- In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response
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higher-order conditioning
- a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus.
- Ex: an animal that has leaned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone.
- (Also called second-order conditioning)
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second-order conditioning
another name for higher-order conditioning
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extinction
- the diminished responding that occurs when the CS (ex: tone) no longer signals an impending US (ex: food, in dog experiment)
- occurs in classical condition when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS)
- ovvurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced
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spontaneous recovery
- the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response
- suggested to Pavlov that extinction was suppressing the CR rather than eliminating it
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generalization
the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses
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discrimination
in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish btwn a conditioned stimulus (which predicts the US) and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus
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cognitive processes
thoughts, perceptions, expectations
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expectancy
an awareness of how likely it is that the US will occur
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Robert Rescorla and Allan Wagner
- explained why an animal can learn the predictability of an event.
- The more predictable the association, the stronger the conditioned response.
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learning enables organism to
adapt to their environment
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Why was Pavlov's work so important?
- 1 - classical conditioning is one way that virtually all organisms learn to adapt to their environment
- 2 - He showed us how a process such as learning can be studied objectively
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respondent behavior
behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus
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operant behavior
behavior that operates on the environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimuli
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to help distinguish slassical from operant conditioning we can ask:
- Classical: is the organism learning associations btwn events it does not control
- Operant: is the organism learning associations btwn it's behavior and resulting events
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B. F. Skinner
- modern behaviorism's most influential and controversial figure
- his work elaborated what psychologist Edward L. Thorndike called "law of effect"; developed behavioral technology
- designed an operant chamber
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law of effect
Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely
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operant chamber
- popularly know as a Skinner box
- in operant conditioning research, a chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer
- attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking
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shaping
- an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward a desired behavior
- Ex: using food (as the reinforcers) to gradually guide an animals actions toward a desired behavior
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successive approximations
A way of teaching a desired behavior. In example w rat... each time the rat would come a littler closer to the bar (closer than the time before), it would be rewarded.
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discriminative stimulus
signals that a response will be reinforced.
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two kinds of reinforcement
positive and negative
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reinforcement
any consequence that strengthens behavior
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reinforcer
- concept of Skinner's
- in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
- Ex: a reward (money, food, praise, activity)
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positive reinforcement
- strengthens a response by presenting a typically pleasurable stimulus after a response
- A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response
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negative reinforcement
- increasing behaviors by stipping or reducing negative stimuli.
- A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response.
- *negative reinforcement is not punishment
- Ex: taking aspirin get rid of headache, pushing snooze to silence alarm
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primary reinforcers
- an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satifies a biological need.
- Ex: getting food when hungry or having a painful headache go away
- *unlearned, innately satisfying
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conditioned reinforcers
- also called secondary reinforcers
- a stimulus that gains it's reinforcing power through it's learned association with a primary reinforcer
- Ex: if a rat learns a light reliably signals food is coming, rat will work to turn light on. Light has become conditioned reinforcers associated w food
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continuous reinforcement
- reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
- under these conditions, learning occurs rapidly
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partial (intermittent) reinforcement
- reinforcing a response only part of the time; responses are sometimes reinforced, sometimes not
- results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement
- Ex: salepeople don't make sale w every pitch, anglers dont get a bite w every cast
- The very best procedure for making a behavior persist
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Skinner's four schedules of partial reinforcement
- Fixed-ratio schedules
- variable-ratio schedules
- fixed-interval schedules
- variable-interval schedules
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Fixed-ratio schedule
- in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
- once conditioned, the animal will pause only briefly after a reinforcer and will then return to a high rate of responding
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variable-ratio schedule
- in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
- Ex: slot machines and fly-casting anglers
- Like the fixed-ratio schedule, produces high rates of responding, because reinforcers increase as the number of responses increases.
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fixed-interval schedule
- in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed
- Ex: Like people checking more frequently for the mail as the delivery time approaches, produces a choppy stop-start pattern rather than a steady rate of response
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variable-interval schedule
- in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
- tend to produce slow, steady responding; no knowing when the waiting will be over.
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Although animal behaviors differ, Skinner contended that
the reinforcement principles of operant conditioning are universal
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punishment
- an event that decreases the behavior it follows
- A punisher is any consequence that decreases the frequency of a preceding behavior
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drawbacks of physically punishing children
- 1. Punished behavior is suppressed, not forgotten. (child swears, parents swat, parent hears no more swearing, assumed punishment stopped behavior)
- 2. Punishment teaches discrimination (did punishment really end child from swearing, or did child simply learn not ok to swear at home but ok elsewhere?)
- 3. Punishment can teach fear ~ children may generalize, associating fear not only w undesired behavior but also w person delivering punishment or place it occured)
- 4. Physical punishment may increase aggressiveness by modeling aggression as a way to cope with problems
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In operant conditioning, discrimination occurs when
an organism learns that certain responses, but not others, will be reinforced.
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In operant conditioning, gerneralization occurs when
an organism's response to similar stimuli is also reinforced
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Punishment tells you _____________; as reinforcement tells you ____________
Punishment tells you what not to do, reinforcement tell you what to do.
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Skinner said that punishment...
teaches how to avoid it.
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cognitive map
- a mental representation of the layout of one's environment.
- Ex: after exploring a maze, rats act as if they learned a cognitive map of it.
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latent learning
learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.
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There is more to learning than associating a reponse with a consequence; there's also
cognition
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Biological constraints...
predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive
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instinctive drift
- w animal training, occurs when animals revert to their biologically predisposed patters.
- Operant training works best when it builds on an animal's natural behavior tendencies
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B.F. Skinners Legacy
- instisted that external influences (not internal thoughts and feelings) shape behavior
- urged people to use operant principles to influence other's behavior at work, school and home
- knowing behavior is shaped by results, said we should use rewards to evoke more desirable behavior
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Recommended steps to reinforce your own behaviors and extinguish the undesired ones
- 1. state your goal - in measurable ters, and announce it
- 2. monitor how often you engage in your desired behavior - keep a log or record
- 3. Reinforce the desired behavior - reward yourself only after you achieve a success
- 4. Reduce the rewards gradually - as new behaviors become more habitual, "give urself pat on back instead of cookie"
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observational learning
learning by observing others
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modeling
the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
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mirror neurons
- frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so.
- The brains mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy
- found by Giacomo Rizzolatti w monkey experiment
- Our brain's mirror neurons underlie our intensely social nature
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theory of mind
the ability to infer another's mental state
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behavior modeling
- what many businesses use to train communications, sales and customer service skills.
- Trainees gain skills faster when they not only are told the needed skills but can also observe the skills being modeled effectively by experienced workers
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prosocial behavior
- positive, constructive, helpful behavior
- opposite of antisocial behavior
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the violence-viewing effect, stems from two factors:
- 1. imitation
- 2. desensitization
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