Anatomy 4 Respiratory

• gas exchange
• intake O₂
• elimination CO₂

**nasal cavity**

• type II alveolar cells (secrete)--> alveolar fluid (has)--> surfactant keeps alveoli from collapsing
• and lowers the surface tension of alveolar fluid, preventing the collapse of alveoli with each expiration

• increases mucosal surfase area exposed to the air
• enhances air turbulence in the nasal cavity
• heat, filter, moisten air (inhalation)
• (exhalation)- reclaim heat and moisture by precipitate moisture and extract heat from the humidity air flowing over them
• decrease moisture and heat lost through breathing

produces mucus, filters, warms and moistens incoming air, receptors of smell

**external nares**

• childbirth              inhalation
• defecation            urination
• vomiting              coughing
• screaming           sneezing
• burping               nose blowing
• when abdominal muscles contract with diaphragm and the glottis is closed

• regions: 1. Nasopharynx 2. Oropharynx 3. Laryngopharynx 
• 1. Nasopharynx- respiration
• 2. Oropharynx & 3. Laryngopharynx- in digestion and respiration (serving as a passageway for both air and food)
• Pharynx (throat) upper respiratory system
• muscular tube lined by mucous membrane

• opening
• taking a deep breath, closing glottis and forcing air superiorly from lungs against glottis; glottis opens suddenly and a blast of air rushes upward. Can dislodge foreign particles or mucus from lower respiratory tract and propel them superiorly.

• pO₂,pCO₂, low pH acidity, temperature, Bohr effect and BPG
• pO2- most important factor

**FALSE**

**thyroid cartilage**

**cricoid**

**sound**

• (windpipe) from the larynx to the primary bronchi
• composed: smooth muscle and rings of cartilage and
• lined: w/ pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
• part of the lower respiratory system and conduction zone

**passive process**

• alveolar-capillary (respiratory) membrane
• gas exchange occurs across the alveolar-capillary membrane
• the greater surface area the more gas can diffuse
• O₂ and CO₂ gradients diffuse across
• very high partial pressure

• 2. Bronchioles
• 4. Primary Bronchi
• 1. Secondary Bronchi
• 3. Alveolar Ducts
• 5. Alveoli

**alveoli sacs**

**temperature**

**Inhalation**

**Exhalation**

Henry's Law states that the quantity of a gas that will dissolve in a liquid is proportional to the partial pressure of the gas and its solubility coefficient (its physical or chemical attraction for water), when the temperature remains constant.

each gas in a mixture of gasses exerts its own pressure as if all the other gasses were not present

• inspiration muscles used
• sternocleidomastoids, scalenes, and pectoralis minor
• expiration
• internal intercostals and abdominal muscles

**Inhale up volume/ pressure down**

Pulmonary ventilation (breathing) is the first of three basic processes of respiration; it consists of inspiration and expiration. The other two processes are external (pulmonary) respiration and internal (tissue) respiration.

**tissue respiration**

**hemoglobin/ oxyhemoglobin**

**diffusion**

**carbonic acid**

the volume of the gas varies inversely with pressure, assuming temperature is constant

**medullary**

• the volume of the gas varies inversely with pressure, assuming temperature is constant
• up pressure/ down volume

D. Intercellular

Among the modifying factors are cortical influences, the inflation (Hering-Breuer) reflex, chemical stimuli such as 02 and CO2 (actually H~) levels, proprioceptors, temperature, pain, and irritation to the respiratory mucosa.

• external pulmonary respiration- exchange of gases between alveoli and pulmonary blood capillaries
• It results in the conversion of deoxygenated blood coming from the heart to oxygenated blood returning to the heart.
• It depends on partial pressure differences, a large surface area for gas exchange, a small diffusion distance across the alveolar-capillary (respiratory) membrane, an minute volume of respiration.
• O₂ and CO₂ diffuse from areas of their higher partial pressures to areas of their lower partial pressures.

• the exchange of gases between tissue blood capillaries and tissue cells
• It results in the conversion of oxygenated blood into deoxygenated blood
• At rest only abour 25% of the available oxygen in oxygenated blood actually enters tissue cells. During exercise, more oxygen is released.

**carbominohemoglobin**

• 1. increasing temperature
• 2. blood pH
• 3. blood concentration of CO₂
• BPG - a substance formed in RBCs during glycolysis. The greater the level of BPG, the more oxygen is released from hemoglobin.

type II alveolar cells (secrete)--> alveolar fluid (has)--> surfactant keeps alveoli from collapsingand lowers the surface tension of alveolar fluid, preventing the collapse of alveoli with each expiration

**Inhalation**

• in low pH (acidic) O₂ splits more readily from hemoglobin
• high pCO₂

**Atelectasis**

BPG (2,3-bisphosphoglycerate), previously called diphosphoglycerate (DPG), is a substance formed in red blood cells during glycolysis. The greater the level of BPG, the more oxygen is released from hemoglobin.

• pneumotaxic center
• Apneustic

**sneezing and coughing**

**preference of CO over oxygen**

• hypoxia refers to oxygen deficiency at the tissue level and is classified as hypoxic, anemic, stagnant, or histotoxic
• 1. Hypoxic hypoxia is caused by a low pO₂ in arterial blood (high altitude, airway obstruction, fluid in lungs)
• 2. Anemic Hypoxia there is to little functioning hemoglobin in the blood (hemorrhage, anemia, carbon monoxide poisoning)
• 3. Stagnant Hypoxia results from the inability of blood to carry oxygen to tissues fast enough to sustain their needs ( heart failure, circulatory shock)
• 4. Histotoxic hypoxia, the blood delivers adequate oxygen to the tissues, nut the tissues are unable to use it properly (cyanide poisoning)

add more

• forced expiration employs contraction of the internal intercostals and abdominal muscles
• blowing up a balloon

• 1. parietal pleura
• 2. pleural cavity
• 3. visceral pleura
• 4. lungs

• 1. increased temperature
• 2. low pH levels
• 3. BPG
• 3. pCO₂

Hypoxic hypoxia is caused by a low pO₂ in arterial blood (high altitude, airway obstruction, fluid in lungs)

partial pressure

**amount of oxygen available**

**4**

• heme-pigment
• globin- polypeptide chain