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Define indicator validity.
It accurately measures the concept it is intended to measure. (ex. if indicator contains very little error, it is a valid measure)
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Define indicator reliability.
the assignment of the same number to a phenomena (ex. landing the same number of murders in a neighborhood twice- reliable indicator)
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Unpack the N.O.I.R. Scales.
- Nominal- categorical data (ex. Name of school, car you drive)
- Ordinal- quantities with natural ordering (ex. Ranking of sports teams from 1-5; no equal intervals)
- Interval- intervals are equally split (ex. degrees Fahrenheit)
- Ratio- Interval data with a natural zero point (ex. degrees Kelvin; time both begin at 0)
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What is the difference between continuous and discrete data?
- Continuous data is measured and can take any value within a range (ex. measure height, time, weight, length)
- discrete data is counted (and can only take certain values- when counting a class, you can't count 1/2 a student)
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Discern the different types of Measurement Validity.
- Face validity- if management or user accept as validated (# of yrs. in school= education)
- Consensual validity- if numerous people accept valid indicator (ex. recidivism rate)
- Correlational validity- if correlates strongly with other indicators (ex. community satisfaction- monetary donations)
- Predictive validity-if correctly predicts a specified outcome (ex. civil service exam scores- on the job performance)
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Define the different reliability tests.
- Test-retest- estimating by performing the same survey with the same respondents at different times
- Parallel content- correlation between responses obtain on two sets of items
- Inter-rater- application of measurement should not vary depending on who is doing the measuring
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What is the difference between deductive and inductive reasoning?
- Deductive starts with a hypothesis, and after observations, makes a conclusion about a class (Ex. All men are mortal. Harold is a man. Therefore, Harold is mortal)
- Inductive makes broad generalizations from specific observations (ex. Harold is bald. Harold is a grandfather. All grandfathers are bald)
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What are the differences between nomathetic and idiographic research?
- Nomathetic attempts to make generalizations through qualitative research (ex. one size fits all)
- Idiographic- is a case specific type of research that is quantitative (what works for the o4w doesn't work for Midtown)
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What is causation? What are the differences between reverse and spurious causation?
- Causation is the causal relationship between conduct and result
- Reverse causation is when A affects B.
- Spurious causation is when C causes both A and B
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Elaborate on the empirical evidences.
- Effect flows cause temporally- change in dependent variable comes later than change in independent variable
- covariation (correlation)- do they move together?
- Lack of reverse causation- x causes y, then y causes x
- Nonspuriousness- A relationship between two variables is one that cannot be explained by a third variable. If the effects of other relevant variables in the environment are controlled (ruled out as rival explanations) and the relationship between two variables is maintained
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What is the difference between internal and external validity?
- Internal- concerned with correctly concluding that an independent variable is, in fact, responsible for variation in the dependent variable
- External- it checks the results; the replications should be with other settings, with other subject populations, and with other, but related variables.
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Discern the measures of central tendency.
- Mean- the average of all scores
- Median- the median number in a ordered line of scores
- Mode- the most occuring score
- Interpolated Median- the third observation up from the bottom of the class
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