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Associative Learning
- learning that certain events occur together
- the events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant learning)
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Classical Conditioning
a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
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Unconditioned Response (UR)
in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US) such as salivation when food is in the mouth
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Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally - naturally and automatically - triggers a response
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Conditioned Response (CR)
in classical conditioning, the learned response to previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus
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Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response
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Acquisition
- in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering a response
- in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response
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Higher-Order Conditioning
a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second, often weaker stimulus
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Extinction
- the diminishing of a conditioned response
- Occurs in classical conditioning when a US does not follow a CS
- Occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced
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Spontaneous Recovery
the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished condittioned response
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Generalization
the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses
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Discrimination
in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimuli and stimuli that do not signal unconditioned stimuli
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Behaviorism
the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes
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Operant Conditioning
a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforce or diminished if followed by a punisher
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Respondent behavior
behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus (involved in classical conditioning)
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Operant Behavior
behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences
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Law of Effect
Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
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Operant Chamber
in operant conditioning research, a chamber (aka a Skinner Box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer
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Shaping
an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
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Reinforcers
in operant conditioning, any even that strengthens behavior it follows
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Positive Reinforcement
- increasing behaviors by presenting a positive stimuli, such as food
- any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response
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Negative Reinforcement
- increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock
- any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response (does not equal punishment)
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Primary Reinforcer
an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need
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Conditioned Reinforcer
a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association w/a primary reinforcer (aka secondary reinforcer)
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Continuous Reinforcement
reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
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Partial (intermittent) Reinforcement
- reinforcing a response only part of the time
- results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement
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Fixed Ratio Schedules
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
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Variable Ratio Schedule
- in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
- best reinforcement schedule
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Fixed Interval Schedule
reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specific time has elapsed
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Variable Interval Schedule
reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
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Punishment
an event that decreases the behavior that follows
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Drawbacks of Punishment
- Punished Behavior is suppressed, not forgotten
- Punishment teaches discrimination
- Punishment can teach fear
- Physical punishment may increase aggressiveness by modeling aggression as a way to cope with problems
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Positive Punishment
- Administers an aversive stimulus
- Ex: spanking, parking ticket
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Negative Punishment
- Withdraw a desirable stimulus
- Ex: Time-out from privileges (such as time w/friends); revoked driver's license
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Cognitive Map
a mental representation of the layout of one's environment
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Latent Learning
learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
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Intrinsic Motivation
a desire to perform a better behavior effectively for its own sake
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Extrinsic Motivation
a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment
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Observational Learning
learning by observing others
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Modeling
the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
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Mirror Neurons
- frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so
- The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy
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