Chapter 1: An Orientation

Studies the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another

concerns the function of the body; how the body parts work and carry out their life-sustaining activities

study of large body structures visible to the naked eye, such as the heart, lungs, and kidneys

All the structures in a particular region of the body, such as the abdomen or leg, are examined at the same time

body structure is divided system by system - when studying the cardiovascular system, you would examine the heart and the blood vessels of the entire body

study of internal structures as they relate to the overlying skin surface

deal with structures too small to be seen with the naked eye

subdivision of microscopic anatomy which considers the cells of the body

subdivision of microscopic anatomy which considers the tissue

traces structural changes that occur in the body throughout the life span

a subdivision of developmental anatomy, concerns developmental changes that occur before birth

studies structural changes caused by disease

studies internal structures as visualized by X-ray images or specialized scanning procedures

structure of biological molecules is investigated

feeling organs with your hands

listening to organ sounds with a stethoscope

concerns kidney function and urine production

explains the workings of the nervous system

examines the operation of the heart and blood vessels

what a structure can do depends on its specific form

• Chemical Level
• Cellular Level
• Tissue Level
• Organ Level
• Organ System Level
• Organismal Level

so that its internal environment remains distinct from the external environment surrounding it

• activities promoted by the muscular system, such as propelling ourselves from one place to another by running or swimming, and manipulating the external environment with our nimble fingers
• also when substances such as blood, foodstuffs, and urine are propelled through internal organs of the cardiovascular, digestive, and urinary systems

the muscle cell's ability to move by shortening

the ability to sense changes in the environment and then respond to them

the breaking down of ingested foodstuffs to simple molecules that can be absorbed into the blood

a broad term that includes all chemical reactions that occur within body cells

breaking down substances into their simpler building blocks

synthesizing more complex cellular structures from simpler substances

using nutrients and oxygen to produce ATP

energy-rich molecules that power cellular activities

process of moving wastes, or excreta, from the body

the original cell divides, producing two identical daughter cells that may then be used for body growth or repair

making a whole new person - the major task of the reproductive system

an increase in size of a body part or the organism as a whole

taken in via the diet, contain the chemical substances used for energy and cell building

chemical reactions that release energy from foods are oxidative reactions that require oxygen

60-80% of our body weight - provides the watery environment necessary for chemical reactions and the fluid base for body secretions and excretions

• 98.6°F or 37°C
• As body temperature drops below normal body temp., metabolic reactions become slower and slower, and finally stop
• When body temp. is too high, chemical reactions occur at a frantic pace and body proteins lose their characteristic shape and stop functioning

the force that air exerts on the surface of the body - breathing and gas exchange in the lungs depends on appropriate atmospheric pressure

body's ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions even though the outside world changes continuously

factor or event being regulated

• Receptor
• Control Center
• Effector

first component, some type of sensor that monitors the environment and responds to changes, called stimuli, by sending information to the second component, control center

pathway where input flows from the receptor to the the control center

determines the set point, which is the level or range at which a variable is to be maintained - also analyzes the input it receives and determines the appropriate response or course of action

information flows from the control center, down this pathway to the effector

provides the means for the control center's response to the stimulus

the output shuts off the original effect of the stimulus or reduces its intensity - these mechanisms cause the variable to change in a direction opposite to that of the initial change, returning to its "ideal" value

the result or response enhances the original stimulus so that the response is accelerated - the change that results proceeds in the same direction as the initial change, causing the variable to deviate further and further from its original value or range

positive feedback mechanisms - from the Italian word meaning "to fall"

most disease is a result of a disturbance of homeostasis - as we age, our body's control systems become less efficient, and our internal environment becomes less and less stable

the body is erect with feet slightly apart - "standing at attention" with palms facing forward and thumbs away from the body - most directional terms used refer to the body as if it were in this position, regardless of its actual position

allow us to explain where one body structure is in relation to another

makes up the main axis of our body - includes the head, neck, and trunk

consists of appendages or limbs

used to designate specific areas within major body divisions

toward the head end or upper part of a structure or the body; above

Away from the head end or toward the lower part of a structure or the body; below

toward or at the front of the body; in front of

toward or at the back of the body; behind

toward or at the midline of the body; on the inner side of

away from the midline of the body; on the outer side of

Between a more medial and a more lateral structure

closer to the origin of the body part of closer to the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk

Farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk

toward or at the body surface

away from the body surface; more internal

vertical plane that divides the body into right and left parts

sagittal plane that lies exactly in the midline

sagittal planes offset from the midline - para=near

vertical plane that divides the body into superior and inferior parts

runs horizontally from right to left, dividing the body into superior and inferior parts

a transverse section

cuts made diagonally between the horizontal and the vertical planes - because oblique sections are often confusing and difficult to interpret, they are seldom used

protects the fragile nervous system organs

dorsal body cavity in the skull, encases the brain

dorsal body cavity which runs within the bony vertebral column, encloses the delicate spinal cord

the more anterior and larger of the closed body cavities

collective internal organs housed in the ventral body cavity

superior subdivision of the ventral body cavity that is surrounded by the ribs and muscles of the chest

Further subdivision of the thoracic cavity

contained in the pleural cavities - contains the pericardial cavity

encloses the heart, and it also surrounds the remaining thoracic organs, such as the esophagus

inferior ventral body cavity, separated by the diaphragm from the thoracic cavity

superior portion of the abdominopelvic cavity, contains the stomach, intestines, pleen, liver, and other organs

inferior part of the abdominopelvis cavity, lies in the bony pelvis and contains the urinary bladder, some reproductive organs, and the rectum

thin, double-layered membrane that covers the walls of the ventral body cavity and the outer surfaces of the organs it contains

part of the membrane lining the cavity walls

serous membrane folds in on itself, covering the organs in the cavity

thin layer of lubricating fluid that separates the serous membranes, andis secreted by both serous membranes

lines the cardial cavity

covers the heart

line the walls of the thoracic cavity

cover the lungs

associated with the walls of the abdominopelvic cavity

covers most of the organs within the abdominopelvic cavity

inflammation of the pleurae

inflammation of the peritoneum

• quadrants resulting from the abdominopelvic cavity being divided by transverse and median planes through the umbilicus
• RUQ-LUQ-RLQ-LLQ

• Umbilical Region: centermost region deep to and surrounding the umbilicus
• Epigastric Region: located superior the umbilical region 
• Hypogastric Region: located inferior to the umbilical region
• R&L Iliac; Inguinal Regions: located lateral to the hypogastric region
• R&L Lumbar Regions: lie lateral to the umbilical region
• R&L Hypochondriac: lie lateral to the epigastric region and deep to the ribs

commonly called the mouth, contains the teeth and tongue. This cavity is part of and continuous with the cavity of the digestive organs, which opens to the body exterior at the anus

Located within and posterior to the nose, part of the respiratory system passageways

in the skull, house the eyes and present them in an anterior position

in the skull, lie just medial to the eardrums - contain tiny bones that transmit sound vibrations in the inner ears

joint cavities - they are enclosed within fibrous capsules that surround freely movable joints of the body (such as the elbow and knee joints) - lined by membranes that secrete a lubricating fluid that reduces friction as the bones move across one another