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Anatomy
Studies the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another
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Physiology
concerns the function of the body; how the body parts work and carry out their life-sustaining activities
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Gross;Macroscopic Anatomy
study of large body structures visible to the naked eye, such as the heart, lungs, and kidneys
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Regional Anatomy
All the structures in a particular region of the body, such as the abdomen or leg, are examined at the same time
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Systemic Anatomy
body structure is divided system by system - when studying the cardiovascular system, you would examine the heart and the blood vessels of the entire body
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Surface Anatomy
study of internal structures as they relate to the overlying skin surface
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Microscopic Anatomy
deal with structures too small to be seen with the naked eye
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Cytology
subdivision of microscopic anatomy which considers the cells of the body
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Histology
subdivision of microscopic anatomy which considers the tissue
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Developmental Anatomy
traces structural changes that occur in the body throughout the life span
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Embryology
a subdivision of developmental anatomy, concerns developmental changes that occur before birth
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Pathological Anatomy
studies structural changes caused by disease
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Radiographic Anatomy
studies internal structures as visualized by X-ray images or specialized scanning procedures
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Molecular biology
structure of biological molecules is investigated
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Palpation
feeling organs with your hands
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Auscultation
listening to organ sounds with a stethoscope
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Renal Physiology
concerns kidney function and urine production
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Neurophysiology
explains the workings of the nervous system
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Cardiovascular physiology
examines the operation of the heart and blood vessels
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Principle of Complementarity of Structure and Function
what a structure can do depends on its specific form
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Levels of Structural Organization
- Chemical Level
- Cellular Level
- Tissue Level
- Organ Level
- Organ System Level
- Organismal Level
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Every living organism must "maintain its boundaries"
so that its internal environment remains distinct from the external environment surrounding it
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Movement
- activities promoted by the muscular system, such as propelling ourselves from one place to another by running or swimming, and manipulating the external environment with our nimble fingers
- also when substances such as blood, foodstuffs, and urine are propelled through internal organs of the cardiovascular, digestive, and urinary systems
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Contractility
the muscle cell's ability to move by shortening
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Responsiveness; Excitability
the ability to sense changes in the environment and then respond to them
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Digestion
the breaking down of ingested foodstuffs to simple molecules that can be absorbed into the blood
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Metabolism - "a state of change"
a broad term that includes all chemical reactions that occur within body cells
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Catabolism
breaking down substances into their simpler building blocks
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Anabolism
synthesizing more complex cellular structures from simpler substances
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Cellular Respiration
using nutrients and oxygen to produce ATP
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ATP
energy-rich molecules that power cellular activities
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Excretion
process of moving wastes, or excreta, from the body
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Reproduction (of cells)
the original cell divides, producing two identical daughter cells that may then be used for body growth or repair
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Reproduction (of the human organism)
making a whole new person - the major task of the reproductive system
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Growth
an increase in size of a body part or the organism as a whole
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Nutrients
taken in via the diet, contain the chemical substances used for energy and cell building
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Importance of "Oxygen"
chemical reactions that release energy from foods are oxidative reactions that require oxygen
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Water
60-80% of our body weight - provides the watery environment necessary for chemical reactions and the fluid base for body secretions and excretions
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Normal Body Temperature
- 98.6°F or 37°C
- As body temperature drops below normal body temp., metabolic reactions become slower and slower, and finally stop
- When body temp. is too high, chemical reactions occur at a frantic pace and body proteins lose their characteristic shape and stop functioning
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Atmospheric Pressure
the force that air exerts on the surface of the body - breathing and gas exchange in the lungs depends on appropriate atmospheric pressure
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Homeostasis - "wisdom of the body"
body's ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions even though the outside world changes continuously
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Variable
factor or event being regulated
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Components of Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
- Receptor
- Control Center
- Effector
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Receptor
first component, some type of sensor that monitors the environment and responds to changes, called stimuli, by sending information to the second component, control center
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Afferent pathway
pathway where input flows from the receptor to the the control center
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Control Center
determines the set point, which is the level or range at which a variable is to be maintained - also analyzes the input it receives and determines the appropriate response or course of action
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Efferent Pathway
information flows from the control center, down this pathway to the effector
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Effector
provides the means for the control center's response to the stimulus
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Negative Feedback Mechanisms
the output shuts off the original effect of the stimulus or reduces its intensity - these mechanisms cause the variable to change in a direction opposite to that of the initial change, returning to its "ideal" value
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Positive Feedback Mechanisms
the result or response enhances the original stimulus so that the response is accelerated - the change that results proceeds in the same direction as the initial change, causing the variable to deviate further and further from its original value or range
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Cascades
positive feedback mechanisms - from the Italian word meaning "to fall"
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Homeostatic Imbalance
most disease is a result of a disturbance of homeostasis - as we age, our body's control systems become less efficient, and our internal environment becomes less and less stable
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Anatomical Position
the body is erect with feet slightly apart - "standing at attention" with palms facing forward and thumbs away from the body - most directional terms used refer to the body as if it were in this position, regardless of its actual position
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Directional Terms
allow us to explain where one body structure is in relation to another
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Axial part of the body
makes up the main axis of our body - includes the head, neck, and trunk
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Appendicular part of the body
consists of appendages or limbs
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Regional terms
used to designate specific areas within major body divisions
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toward the head end or upper part of a structure or the body; above
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Inferior (caudal)
Away from the head end or toward the lower part of a structure or the body; below
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Ventral (anterior)
toward or at the front of the body; in front of
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Dorsal (posterior)
toward or at the back of the body; behind
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Medial
toward or at the midline of the body; on the inner side of
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Lateral
away from the midline of the body; on the outer side of
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Intermediate
Between a more medial and a more lateral structure
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Proximal
closer to the origin of the body part of closer to the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk
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Distal
Farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk
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Superficial (external)
toward or at the body surface
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Deep (internal)
away from the body surface; more internal
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Sagittal Plane - "arrow"
vertical plane that divides the body into right and left parts
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Median Plane; Midsagittal Plane
sagittal plane that lies exactly in the midline
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Parasagittal Planes
sagittal planes offset from the midline - para=near
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Frontal Planes; Coronal Plane
vertical plane that divides the body into superior and inferior parts
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Transverse Plane; Horizontal Plane
runs horizontally from right to left, dividing the body into superior and inferior parts
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Cross Section
a transverse section
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Oblique Sections
cuts made diagonally between the horizontal and the vertical planes - because oblique sections are often confusing and difficult to interpret, they are seldom used
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Dorsal Body Cavity
protects the fragile nervous system organs
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Cranial Cavity
dorsal body cavity in the skull, encases the brain
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Vertebral Cavity; Spinal Cavity
dorsal body cavity which runs within the bony vertebral column, encloses the delicate spinal cord
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Ventral Body Cavity
the more anterior and larger of the closed body cavities
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Viscera
collective internal organs housed in the ventral body cavity
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Thoracic Cavity
superior subdivision of the ventral body cavity that is surrounded by the ribs and muscles of the chest
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Pleural Cavities
Further subdivision of the thoracic cavity
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Mediastinum
contained in the pleural cavities - contains the pericardial cavity
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Pericardial cavity
encloses the heart, and it also surrounds the remaining thoracic organs, such as the esophagus
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Abdominopelvic Cavity
inferior ventral body cavity, separated by the diaphragm from the thoracic cavity
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Abdominal Cavity
superior portion of the abdominopelvic cavity, contains the stomach, intestines, pleen, liver, and other organs
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Pelvic Cavity
inferior part of the abdominopelvis cavity, lies in the bony pelvis and contains the urinary bladder, some reproductive organs, and the rectum
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Serosa; Serous Membrane
thin, double-layered membrane that covers the walls of the ventral body cavity and the outer surfaces of the organs it contains
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Parietal Serosa
part of the membrane lining the cavity walls
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Visceral Serosa
serous membrane folds in on itself, covering the organs in the cavity
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Serous Fluid
thin layer of lubricating fluid that separates the serous membranes, andis secreted by both serous membranes
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Parietal Pericardium
lines the cardial cavity
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Visceral Pericardium
covers the heart
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Parietal Pleurae
line the walls of the thoracic cavity
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Visceral Pleurae
cover the lungs
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Parietal Peritoneum
associated with the walls of the abdominopelvic cavity
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Visceral Peritoneum
covers most of the organs within the abdominopelvic cavity
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Pleurisy
inflammation of the pleurae
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Peritonitis
inflammation of the peritoneum
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The Four Abdominopelvic Quadrants
- quadrants resulting from the abdominopelvic cavity being divided by transverse and median planes through the umbilicus
- RUQ-LUQ-RLQ-LLQ
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Nine Abdominopelvic Regions
- Umbilical Region: centermost region deep to and surrounding the umbilicus
- Epigastric Region: located superior the umbilical region
- Hypogastric Region: located inferior to the umbilical region
- R&L Iliac; Inguinal Regions: located lateral to the hypogastric region
- R&L Lumbar Regions: lie lateral to the umbilical region
- R&L Hypochondriac: lie lateral to the epigastric region and deep to the ribs
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Oral and Digestive Cavities
commonly called the mouth, contains the teeth and tongue. This cavity is part of and continuous with the cavity of the digestive organs, which opens to the body exterior at the anus
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Nasal Cavity
Located within and posterior to the nose, part of the respiratory system passageways
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Orbital Cavities (orbits)
in the skull, house the eyes and present them in an anterior position
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Middle Ear Cavities
in the skull, lie just medial to the eardrums - contain tiny bones that transmit sound vibrations in the inner ears
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Synovial Cavities
joint cavities - they are enclosed within fibrous capsules that surround freely movable joints of the body (such as the elbow and knee joints) - lined by membranes that secrete a lubricating fluid that reduces friction as the bones move across one another
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