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Mawad
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The study of essential macromolecules including DNA, RNA, and proteins
Molecular biology
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The first living systems were based on _____.
RNA
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RNA is _____ and _____ than DNA.
More reactive; less stable
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Did LUCA have the same genetic code that we use today?
Yes
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LUCA had _____ as genetic material.
RNA
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Eukaryotes are more closely related to _____.
Archaea
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Charles Darwin
Natural selection and evolution
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Natural selection depends on...
Population variation, competition
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Mechanism if evolutionary change when traits are passed from parents to offspring; new species evolve from pre-existing species.
Vertical descent
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Mechanism of evolution when traits are passed between species.
Horizontal gene transfer
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Three mechanisms of horizontal gene transfer...
Conjugation, transformation, transduction
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Antibiotic resistant bacteria are a product of...
Horizontal gene transfer
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Provides a reasonable explanation for observations.
Hypothesis
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Provides and explanation for a large number of experiments.
Scientific theory
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Deals with transmission of traits from one generation to another.
Transmission genetics
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Mendel proposed the...
Particulate mechanism of inheritance
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Equal and independent segregation of alleles occurs during formation of gamete cells
Law of segregation
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Different genes assort into gametes independently of each other.
Law of independent assortment
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When heterozygotes look different from either homozygous, they are expressing _____.
Incomplete dominance
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When both genes are fully expressed in a heterozygote, they are expressing ____.
Codominance
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When two genes are located on the same chromosome, they are ____.
Linked
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Sister chromatids are only present after.....
S phase of mitosis
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Mitosis separates _____, therefore....
Sister chromatids; chromosome number is the same at the end
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Meiosis I separates _____, and meiosis II separates _____, therefore...
Homologous chromosomes; sister chromatids; chromosome number is halved.
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Physical location of a gene on a chromosome.
Locus
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_________ during meiosis I leads to the independent assortment of alleles found on different chromosomes.
Random alignment of chromosome pairs
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Walter sutton
Chromosomal theory of inheritance
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Thomas Hunt Morgan
Drosophila; sex-linked eye color proved genes were on chromosomes
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Bridges
Demonstrated that rare genetic abnormalities were linked to abnormal chromosomes (nondisjunction)
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If two genes are linked, F2 generation of a test cross will...
Produce only two parental phenotypes
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Bateson and Punnet
Unexpected F2 with recombinant types having greatly decreased numbers (linked genes)
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Recombinants are a result of ______.
Crossing over
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Crossing over occurs between _____ at _____.
Sister chromatids; chiasmata
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Fredrick Griffith
Streptococcus pneumoniae; mice; bacterial transformations
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Avery, McCloud, McCarty
Used purification methods to reveal that DNA is the genetic material; with DNase, no transformation
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Hershey and Chase
T2 phage infects E. coli; labeled DNA and protein and DNA was inserted into the bacteria to infect
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Beadle and Tatum
Neurospora crassa; irradiated then looked for auxotrophs
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Mutants that require extra nutrients that wouldn't normally be required in the wild types
Auxotrophs
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Crick
Proposed the central dogma
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Synthesis of RNA by reading one strand of the double stranded DNA
Transcription
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Small RNA molecules with amino acids attached; Crick's adaptor molecule
tRNA
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The process of producing a protein product from an mRNA molecule
Translation
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The phosphate of a nucleotide is located ____.
5'
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The base of a nucleotide is located ____.
1'
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Nucleosides lack a ____.
Phosphate
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Bases are linked to sugars by _____.
Glycosidic bonds
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Nucleotides are linked together to form nucleic acids by _____.
Phosphodiester bonds
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The sugar a phosphate parts of DNA molecule.
Backbone
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The backbone is hydro___.
Philic
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Chargaff
A pairs with T and G pairs with C
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Watson and Crick
Described beta DNA
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The main form that DNA assumes in cells; right-handed
Bets DNA
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Occurs when DNA is dehydrated or in a solution with little water; DNA/RNA hybrids and ds RNA assume this structure
Alpha DNA
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Left-handed helix that tends to form in G-C rich regions or under very high salt conditions
Z DNA
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RNAs that fold into three dimensional structures only in the presence of proteins
RNP (ribonucleo-proteins)
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Denaturation occurs when...
Hydrogen bonds are broken
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The point at which half the DNA of the sample is denatured
Tm point
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Measure the reassociation of DNA
Cot curves
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Southern blots are used to detect _____.
DNA sequences
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Northern blots are used to detect _____.
RNA sequences
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Types of cloning vectors
Plasmids, phages, BACs, YACs
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Circular DNA molecules that replicate separately from the host chromosome
Plasmids
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A quick electric shock that loosens the membrane of the cell
Electroporation
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Allows you to determine if the DNA has been inserted into the vector
Selectable marker
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Contains a collection of fragments that are actually expressed; reflect he mRNAs in a cell.
cDNA library
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Replicates a segment of DNA in the test tube by using DNA poly erases and primers
Polymerase chain reaction
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Two methods to measure the quantities of mRNA levels
RT and qPCR
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Two practical methods of DNA sequencing
Maxum-Gilbert and Sanger
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The Sanger method requires the synthesis of...
A DNA strand complementary to the strand you are sequencing
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The Sanger method uses:
Primer, DNA polymerase, dideoxynucleotides
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The Sanger method finishes by:
Electrophoresing the fragments
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Vectors that can be set up to express cloned genes.
Expression vectors
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Method used for rapidly screen for expression of huge numbers of genes; DNA segments of known genes are amplified by PCR.
DNA microarrays
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The complete haploid genetic complement of a typical cell; one copy of all the genetic information needed to specify an organism.
Genome
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Regions of contains that had been obviously characterized and provide landmarks in the genome.
Sequence tagged sites (STSs)
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Regions of contigs who's expression could be measured.
Expressed sequence tags (ESTs)
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Method where pieces from throughout the genome have been randomly sequenced and computers order the fragments.
Shot gun sequencing
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Two genes with sequence similarity, even if not related by function.
Homologs
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Two genes in different species that have a clear functional and sequence relationship.
Orthologs
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Genes that are related to each other but are in a single species.
Paralogs
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Conserved gene order
Synteny
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We can get more than one polypeptide from each of our genes because....
We have a lot of introns
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Generally less than ten bases long but may be repeated millions of times; have functional importance.
Simple sequence repeats
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Single base variation between individuals; about 1 per 1000 base pairs.
Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs)
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Genes that are inherited as a group because they are close together; define human populations.
Haplotypes
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The study of complex interconnected processes
Systems biology
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The genes expressed in a cell under given conditions; analyzed by microarrays.
Transcriptome
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The complement of proteins in a cell under a given set of conditions.
Proteome
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2D gel electrophoresis uses:
Isoelectric focusing and SDS-PAGE (gel electrophoresis)
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Proteins are separated based on their isoelectric points, separating based on charge
Isoelectric focusing
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