Biology Test II

• 1. muscles
• 2. Bones (levers)
• 3. joints (hinge)

• hinge joint
•    elbow (uni-axial hinge moves in 1 direction)
• ball and socket joint
•    shoulder/hip
• pivot joint
•    radius (thumb side) rotates

• they most work in opposition
• the contractile unit of a muscle is the sacromere
• Muscle contraction is controlled by motor neurons in the central nervous system
• lots of nerves in fingers= fine motor control

• myosin (thick filaments)
• Actin (thin filaments)
• actin is like a rope and myosin is like people playing tug o war
• when you relax the myosin lets go of the actin
• ATP binds to myosin and signals to let go, when you burn ATP this is the signal to pull
• rigor mortis= not making ATP

• (bowels defecate urinary system excretes)
• Purpose to filter and dispose of
• 1. nitrogenous waste 2. Toxins
• recover
• 1. water 2. salt 3. nutrients

• water moves across a semi-permeable membrane (salt cannot pass) to the solution/ region with the highest solute concentration
• water acts to dilute solute
• Tonicity= way to measure osmosis

• hypotonic= water moves out of solution and into cell (cell expands)
• isotonic= water moves in both directions at the same rate 
• hypertonic- water moves out of cell and into solution (cell shrinks)

• Ammonia very soluble and toxic
• Urea intermediate
• Uric Acid poor solubility and toxicity

Kidney, renal artery/vein, ureters, bladder, urethra

you need blood flow to the kidney so that water can be removed from the blood and used to make urine

• capillary bed/filter (filters the blood), sits inside Bowman's capsule
• blood cells will stay in the glomerulus  and the plasma (fluid portion of the blood) will be squeezed into Bowman's capsule

• 2 jobs
• 1. (Descending) reabsorb H₂O
• 2. (Ascending) reabsorb NaCl

increases urine output decreases blood pressure

decreases urine output increases blood pressure

decreases urine output, maintains osmetic balance

increases urine output

decreases urine output

increases urine output

• increase in urine output
• because he sugar goes into the nephron, with diabetes you cannot recover all the sugar in the proximal convoluted tubule therefore it remains in the loop of Henle and water follows the solute so the water will follow the glucose into the urine

• mouth and nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchus, bronchiole, diaphragm, lungs
• depends on the respiratory and circulatory systems

• made of simple (thin) squamous (pancake like) epithelium (covering)
• surround the aveoli (attached to bronchiole) on the lungs for GAS EXCHANGE

• air inhaled
• rib cage expands as rib muscles contract
• diaphragm contracts (moves down)

• air exhaled
• rib cage gets smaller as muscles relax
• diaphragm relaxes (moves up)

• move from high concentration to low concentration 
• high partial pressure to low partial pressure
• partial pressures are the pressures of each individual gas

• connects lungs to the cells in the body, the heart is the pump that drives the circulatory system
• blood moves away from the heart in arteries (have to be stronger)  and towards the heart in veins (has valves to push blood forward and stop blood from flowing backwards)
• capillaries lie between the arteries and veins for GAS EXCHANGE

• only in the systemic system
• arteries= oxygenated
• veins= deoxygenated
• oxygen is carried in the blood bound to the protein hemoglobin

• water
• salt ions
• plasma proteins
• substances transported by blood

• Erythrocytes (red blood cells) 5-6 million
• Leukocytes (white blood cells) 5,000-10,000
• red blood cells transports oxygen
• platelets= blood clotting

• measure pressure waves of blood flow
• systolic= when your pushing (high pressure)
• diastolic= when blood is flowing (low pressure)

normal breathing rate controlled by Carbon Dioxide concentration (except when you are suffocating)

• CO₂ + H₂O = H₂CO₃ (Carbonic acid) = H⁺ + HCO₃ ^- (bicarbonate)
• proton = low pH
• receptors in your brain check the pH of your blood (more acidic = faster you breathe)

a little attaches to the protein of the hemoglobin almost all of it is dissolved in the water of the plasma

muscle, myoglobin found in the muscles (what makes it red)

• 3 things
• 1. sensory input
• 2. integration function
• 3. motor output

• brain and spinal chord
• the cerebrum (makes you you)
• cerebellum (balance and coordination)
• brainstem (autonomic functions (pons, medulla, midbrain))
• cerebrum or cerebral hemisphere (higher order brain functions)
• Forebrain (cerebrum, thalamus, hypothalamus)

• cranial nerves, ganglia outside CNS, and spinal nerves
• ganglia- group of neuron bodies outside the spinal column

are made up of many nerves (which are made up of groups of axons or dendrites) signals move into dendrites or cell body and out the axon

space between synaptic terminal and the target cell

• insulation made by schwann cells
• schwann cell like a pancake- wraps around the axon multiple times (prevents short circuit)
• in between the myelin sheath parts not covered called node of ranvien (make signal go faster)

• muscle cells (motor neurons)
• other neurons
• glands, receptor cells (not major)

• both positive and negative signals are summed before the nueron can send electrical impulse (action potential) down its axon to the next cell
• you have to get above signalling threshold by getting more positive than negative signals

• neurotransmitters
• often a relaxation or calming (negative signal to slow things down)

• neurotransmitter
• signals muscle contraction

motor functions under conscience control

• sympathetic division (fight or flight)
• parasympathetic division (rest and digest)
• enteric division (digestion)

(makes you you)

(balance and coordination)

(autonomic functions (pons, medulla, midbrain))

(higher order brain functions)

(cerebrum, thalamus, hypothalamus)

attaches emotions to memory (making memories stronger)

selective seretonin reuptake inhibitors

• taste
• stimulus- chemical

• smell
• stimulus- chemical

stimulus- light

stimulus- sound

stimulus- gravity/ inertia

• gustation and olfaction (their chemoreceptors respond to chemicals in aqueous solutions (saliva and snot))
• temperature texture and pain all affect taste
• taste is 80% smell

• 70% of all sensory receptors are in the eye
• Iris- colored part
• Pupil- regulates the amount of light entering the eye
• Retina- two layered membrane, pigmented layer that absorbs light
• optic disc- where optic nerve leaves the eye
• lens- transparent

• emmetropic- normal
• myopic- (near sighted) the focal point is in front of the retina
• hyperopic- (far sighted) the focal point is behind the retina

• outer and middle ear involved with hearing
• inner ear= hearing and balance
• bones in inner ear- Malleus, Stapes, and Incus (all in tympanic cavity) transmit vibratory motion of the eardrum to the oval window

• frequency/wavelength (pitch) (Hz)
• amplitude (loudness/volume) (dB)