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Define genetics.
scientific study of heredity
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why is genetics central to biology?
because gene activity underlies all life processes
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what is classical genetics?
use of crosses to breed new strains of organisms and to understand how traits are transmitted.
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Genetics is often divided into _________ and _________ genetics
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what is an important tool used in classical genetics?
isolation of mutants affecting particular traits which can then be compared to normal strains
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what is modern genetics?
study of genes at the molecular level
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how was the first genetic maps of genes on chromosomes generated?
classical genetics
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how is modern genetics made possible?
made possible because of advances in cloning and sequencing genes
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Modern genetics has provided an enormous understanding of about: (4)
- physical nature of genes
- their expression patterns
- role in development and disease
- how their products react
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what is genomics?
branch of genetics that studies organisms in terms of their genomes
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How are many genes first identified?
through their effect on phenotype, and then later cloned and sequenced
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which organisms have DNA as their genetic material?
with the exception of some RNA viruses, genetic material of all viruses, prokaryotes and eukaryotes
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define genome.
full DNA sequence of an organism
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how is genetic information convey in DNA?
conveyed in the sequence of nucleotides
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what is a gene? what do they encode?
- segment of DNA bearing a specific sequence of nucleotides
- encode traits that are passed from parent to offspring
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describe the chromosome of a prokaryote and a eukaryote.
- prokaryote: singular circular chromosome
- eukaryote: many linear chromosomes within a nucleus
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describe the structure of the chromosome.
single molecule of DNA wrapped around histone proteins
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what is the function of histones?
- allow efficient packing of the genome
- involved in gene regulation
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where do eukaryotes contain extranulear DNA? (2)
- mitochondria
- chloroplasts
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The laws of inheritance was first created by?
Gregor Mendel
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From his experiment with crosses between pea plants, Gregor Mendel concluded what 2 things?
- inherited characteristics are determined by genes
- each organism contains 2 copies of each gene ( one from father, one from mother)
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what are alleles? (2)
- alternative versions of genes
- account for variations in inherited characteristics
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Define homozygous.
organisms having a pair of identical alleles for a trait
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Define heterozygous.
organisms having 2 different alleles for a gene
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Define phenotype.
observable characteristics of an organism
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Define Genotype.
genetic makeup of an organism
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The ________ interacts with the environment (internal and external) to produce the _________.
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What was Mendel's first Law? what was another name for it?
- members of a gene pair segregate randomly into gametes
- principle of segregation
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What was Mendel's Second Law?
- different genes assort independently during gamete formation (only applies to genes on different chromosomes or genes that are located very far apart on the same chromosome)
- principle of independent assortment
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what is gene expression?
process by which a gene produces its product and that product carries out its function
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what is the one-gene-one-polypeptide hypothesis?
genes provide instructions for making proteins (not all proteins are enzymes)
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what is transcription?
process by which a segment of DNA (a gene) is copied into RNA
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DNA is locally unwound and ______________ uses one strand as a template to synthesise an RNA copy.
RNA Polymerase
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define rRNA.
ribosomal RNA: used to make ribosomes (translation machines of the cell)
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define tRNA.
transfer RNA: decode DNA language into protein language by bringing amino acids to ribosomes
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define mRNA.
messenger RNA: specify the amino acid sequences of proteins
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define translation. where does is occur?
- process by which the base sequence of mRNA is converted into an amino acid sequence
- occurs in ribosomes
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what is genetic code?
base sequence information that specifies the amino acid sequence of a protein
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what is a codon?
three-nucleotide sequence of mRNA that specifies an amino acid
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what is a switch regarding the operon model?
a switch is made up of a protein (transcription factor) whose conformation can be altered by ligand binding and a DNA sequence to which it binds (promoter)
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Genetic differences arise through the process of what 3 things?
- mutation
- recombination
- selection
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what is mutation?
change in genetic material (substitutions, deletions, insertions, translocations, etc.)
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what is recombination?
exchange of chromosomal material between homologous chromosomes at meiosis
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what is selection?
over long periods of time, this process leads to a change in frequencies of genes affecting certain traits
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All genetic variation ultimately is derived from ________.
mutation
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Describe the hypothetico-deductive method of investigation.
- involves making observations about the natural world
- generating hypothesis to explain observations
- hypothesis must generate experimental predictions
- which can be tested under controlled conditions
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name the 4 subdisciplines of genetics.
- transmission (classical) genetics
- molecular genetics
- population genetics
- quantitative genetics
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what does transmission (classical) genetics deal with? (2)
- deals with how genes and genetic traits are inherited
- how genes recombine (genetic crosses)
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what does molecular genetics deal with?
deals with molecular structure and function of genes (gene expression)
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what does population genetics deal with ?
deals with heredity in groups of individuals for traits that are determined by one or only a few genes
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what is quantitative genetics?
- deals with heredity in groups but the complex traits encoded by many genes simultaneously
- statistics and genetics
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what is the goal of basic research?
- goal of understanding fundamental phenomena
- used to fuel more basic research
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what is the goal of applied research?
goal of overcoming specific problems in society or exploiting discoveries derived from basic research
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what does a genetic map do?
shows the relative locations of genes along a chromosome as well as the distance between genes
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what understanding does genetic maps give us?
understanding of the organization of genes along chromosomes
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what are the qualities that make an organisms a good model for genetic experimentation? (5)
- well known genetic history
- short life cycle
- mating produces large amount of offspring
- easy to handle (genetically traceable)
- genetic variation between individuals in a population
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what is applied genetics?
genetic screens for metabolic diseases
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