Test Two Text 1

• cells 
• plasma membrane
• ATP 
• energy
• store the genetic info in DNA

• Systematics
• phylogeny
• evolutionary history of organisms

Eukarya, Bacteria, and Archaea

genus and species name

kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species

population of cells with similar caracteristics

not identical

strains

sum of all the chemical reactions within a living organism; energy-balancing act

those that release energy and those that require energy

catabolism, the breakdown of complex organic compounds into simpler ones (catabolic/ degradative reactions)

hydrolytic reactions

exergonic

• anabolism, the building of complex organic molecules from simpler ones (anabolic, or biosynthetic); dehydration synthesis and endergonic
• building blocks and furnishes energy
• drive anabolic reactions
• ATP 
• catabolic reactions
• drive anabolic reactions
• perform other cellular work
• ADP + Pi­

• ATP breakdown
• ATP synthesis
• work 
• lost as heat

sequence of chemical reactions; determined by enzymes

explains how chemical reactions occur and how certain factors affect the rates of those reactions; all atoms, ions and molecules, must collide. This way, they can release energy to break and form bonds

velocity, activation energy, orientation

frequency of collision

turnover number

involved with oxidation-reduction reactions

those that remove hydrogen from a substrate

those that add O2

• protein portion of enzyme
• nonprotein component; if organic, it’s a coenzyme
• apoenzyme + cofactor

NAD+ and NADP+

derivatives of the B vitamin niacin

electron carriers

involved in catabolic (energy-yielding) reactions

involved in anabolic reactions

FAD

• cellular controls
• enzyme synthesis and enzyme activity

Temperature, pH, substrate concentration, inhibitors, feedback inhibition/ end-product inhibition

Ribozymes

• form bonds between their atoms
• ATP bonds 
• removal of electrons
• produces energy
• Electrons and protons
• hydrogen ion
• dehydrogenation

• nutrients
• energy sources
• hydrogen atoms
• oxidized compounds

• oxidation-reduction reactions
• trapped within the cell
• formation of ATP
• ADP+ energy+ phosphateà
• phosphorylation

direct transfer of Pi from a phosphorylated compound to ADP

electrons are transferred from organic compounds to one group of electron carriers. Then, the electrons are passed through a series of different electron carriers to molecules of oxygen (O2) or other oxidized inorganic and organic molecules

electron transport chain

transfer of electrons from one electron carrier to the next

releases energy and is used to generate ATP 

chemiosmosis 

metabolic pathway

a.       A is converted to B with a reduction of NAD⁺ to NADH. B is converted to C, which gets converted to D, releasing energy as it transforms and producing ATP from ADP and P_i.  D is converted to E with O₂ as the reactant and CO₂ and H₂O as the by-products. 

• the breakdown of carbohydrate molecuels to produce energy
• glucose

• cellular respiration and fermentation
• glycolysis

glycolysis

Krebs Cycle

ETC

oxidation of glucose to pyruvic acid with the production of some ATP and energy-containing NADH

1.       oxidation of acetyl CoA to carbon dioxide, with the production of some ATP, energy-containing NADH, and another electron carrier, FADH₂

1.       NADH and FADH₂ are oxidized, contributing the electrons they have carried from the substrates to a “cascade” of oxidation-reducation reactions involving a series of additional electron carriers. Energy from these reactions is used to generate a considerable amount of ATP. In respiration, most of the ATP is generated in the third step. 

electron flow from energy-rich glucose to energy poor CO2 and H2O

• 1.       Glycolysis
• 2.       Pyruvic acid is converted into different products, including alcohol or lactic acid
• 3.       No Krebs cycle or ETC
• 4.       ATP yield is lower

• oxidation of glucose to pyruvic acid
• Embden-Meyerhof pathway
• two three carbon sugars
• oxidized 
• atom rearrangement
• pyruvic acid

pentose phosphate pathway

Entner Doudoroff Pathway

• a.       operates simultaneously with glycolysis and provides a means for breaking down five-carbon sugars and glucose
•                                                                                                                                        i.      It produces important intermediate pentoses used in the synthesis of nucleic acids, glucose from carbon dioxide in photosynthesis, and certain amino acids
•                                                                                                                                      ii.      Produces NADPH and yields one ATP for each molecule of glucose oxidized

•                                                                                                                                        i.      Produces two NADPH and one ATP; can metabolize glucose without glycolysis or the pentose phosphate pathway
•                                                                                                                                      ii.      Usually in gram-negative bacteria

Cellular Respiration

aerobic (final electron acceptor is O2) and anaerobic (O2 is not the final electron acceptor)

series of biochemical rections in which the large amount of potential chemical energy stored in acetyl CoA is released step by step

acetyl coA

decarboxylation (loss of CO2)

coenzyme A (CoA)

CO2

• four molecules of CO2 are liberated
• six NADH and two FADH2
• oxidation-reduction reactions
• two ATP 
• substrate-level phosphorylation

sequence of carrier moleules that are capable of oxidation and reduction

• Flavoproteins
• Flavin 
• redox reactions

• Cytochromes
• heme 

Ubiquinones 

release energy as electrons are transferred from higher-energy compounds to lower-energy compounds

• 1.       Transfer of electrons from NADH to FMN, oxidizing NADH to NAD⁺ and FMN is reduced to FMNH₂
• 2.       FMNH₂ transfers H⁺, becoming oxidized and passing electrons to Q
• 3.       Q transfers the electrons to the cytochomomes, which pass them to O₂

• chemiosmosis
• protons to be pumped out
• voltage across the membrane
• ATP 
• 34
• ETC (3 from NADH and 2 from FADH2)
• glycolysis and the Krebs cycle
• 38

• inorganic substance other than oxygen
• NO2-, N2O, or N2
• H2S
• CH4
• Low ATP yield