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nik8222
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elaboration likelihood model
assumes people want to have the "correct" attitudes
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elaboration likelihood model: central route
- make person think carefully about what is being said
- best when person can think carefully
- influenced by strength and quality of argments
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elaboration likelihood model: peripheral route
- influence person through cues that are irrelevant to the actual message
- person is unwilling or unable to process message content carefully
- Influence by cues that irrelevant to the message itself (amount of information or attractiveness of communicator)
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source variables
- who is trying to do the persuading
- people arguing with same exact words can have different effect (liberal vs. socialist leaders)
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credibility
- messages from experts are more believable and more persuasive than messages from non-experts
- gain credibility by:
- - saying things audience agree with
- - arguing against self-interest
- - saying something unexpected
- - having knowledge of the topic
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sleeper effect
- sleeper effect-the delayed effectiveness of a message from a non-credible source
- over time, the effects of credibility fade
- non-credible sources become persuasive
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Hoveland and Weiss (1951)
- sleeper effect example
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Attractiveness
- appearance: physically attractive persuaders are more effective
- likeability: saying nice things to others often increases ability to persuade
- similarity: more persuaded when the communicator seems more like us
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message content
- what makes a message persuasive, independent of the source
- - vividness
- - fear and humor
- - one-sided vs. two-sided arguments
- - repeating a message
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vividness
- the use of graphic message as opposed to data and facts to persuade (reason vs. emotion)
- can help when facts are dry
- ex: this is your brain on drugs commercial
- more educated people are less persuaded by vivid appeals
- ex: josh gerstein is highly persuaded by visuals
- can sometimes distract point of mesage
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fear
- appeals can be either vivid or evidence-based
- mixed evidence for fear appeals
- ex: cigarette smoking, brain on drugs
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protection-motivation theory
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one-sided vs. two-sided appeals
- one-sided: present only your arguments
- two-sided: acknowledge opposition's case and refute it (more effective with people who initially agree and are well informed)
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channel variables
- how is the message being sent
- the medium itself
- self-generated persuasion
- rapid speech
- powerful speech
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medium
- Actively created attitudes are stronger and more persuasive
- the more lifelike the medium, the more persuasive, in order: live, videotaped, audiotaped, written
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self-generated persuasion
- Persuasion can’t change people’s minds; persuasion just sets up the proper conditions where people are willing to change their attitudes
- having people list their own reasons for changing their attitudes
- self-generated ideas are highly persuasive
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self generated persuasion
- Gregory et al (1982)
- had salesmen either use self-generated technique or simply listed reasons for having cable
- 20% bought when given info on cable
- 50% bought when they imagined the reasons
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rapid speech
- people who speak quickly are generally more persuasive b/c they convey impression that they are more credible
- Peripheral cue, thus works best when audience is not processing deeply (no time to think of counterarguments)
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powerful speech
- confidence matters
- hesitation (um, you know)
- disclaimers (I'm not an expert, but)
- qualifiers (sort of, I guess)
- tag questions (don't you think?)
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powerful speech and gender
- women are less likely to use powerful speech
- men are more persuaded by women using powerless speech
- women are more persuaded by women using powerful speech
- possible solution: use powerful speech with friendly and affiliative non-verbal style
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audience variables
- who is listening?
- - mood
- - age
- - need for cogntion
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mood
- good moods appear to increase persuadability
- Janis (1965) had people read persuasive messages while eating or without snacks. Those eating were more persuaded (also works with music)
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mood as information approach
- negative moods: something is wrong and action is necessary
- positive moods: everything is ok, no need to think
- people in a positive mood think less hard
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helping in an emergency
- most of social psychology has focused on helping in emergency situations
- necessary conditions :
- Latané and Darley studies:
- 1. notice the event
- 2. define as an emergency
- 3. take personal responsibility
- 4. have ability to help
- 5. decide to intervene
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defining an emergency
- sometimes obvious: car wreck or prof. has seizure
- sometime mush less so: is the blind person lost? is that couple playing or fighting?
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how to resolve ambiguity in defining an emergency
- look to other people (social comparison): do they seem concerned
- if they seem concerned, then you should
- if they don't you shouldn't
- pluralistic ignorance: when someone looks at you to see if you're calm and you are b/c they are and vice versa - problem
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faulty inferences
- no one is helping > must not be an emergency
- why didn't i ask a question in a lecture
- - didn't want to look stupid
- why didn't anyone else
- - they understood the lecture
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pluralistic ignorance only happens when...
the event is ambiguous
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taking personal responsibility
- Even when the event is unambiguous, may not help if they do not feel personally responsible
- presence of others can lead to diffusion of responsibility
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presence of others...
reduces helping
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more/less likely to help if you are with a friend rather than a stranger?
more
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the seminarian study
- video we saw in class
- people going to talk about being a good samaritan
- half were were made late to study
- on way each person encountered a person in distress
- people ahead of schedule more likely to help then on time and then late
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people are more inclined to help when...
they take personal responsibility
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what is altruism
helping another even when no benefits are offered or expected in return
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why do we help
- selfish reason
- - genetic benefits
- - social exchange
- altruistic reasons
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evolutionary psychology
- why help others if our goal is to ensure our own survival?
- positive take: helping is human nature
- negative take: helping is for personal gain
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kin selection
- to protect our kin
- to look after the "pack"
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social exchange theory
- helping is motivated to maximize rewards and minimize costs
- - we help b/c there are "rewards" associate with helping
- - "altruism" then, is simply disguised self-interest
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rewards of helping
- reciprocity
- satisfying relationships
- positive public image
- mood enhancement
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Chaldini's negative-state relief model
- we help to relieve distress
- helping makes us feel better
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mood and helping
- if you feel your mood will change, more chance you will help
- if you do not feel your mood will change, more chance you will not help
- ex: mood freezing drink study
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negative mood leads to...
helping (unless you feel your mood will not change)
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positive mood leads to...
doing good to maintain the good mood
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argument that there is true altruism
empathy
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empathy
- two reactions to seeing someone suffer:
- - personal distress- pre occupied w/ own anxiety
- - empathy- compassion and tenderness for victim (leads to helping)
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empathy can...
over-ride self interest
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