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Ivanneth
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External nares
nostrils; external openings to the respiratory tract
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nasal cavity
the space inside the internal nose, divided into two halves by the median nasal septum
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internal nares
communicates with pharynx
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Paranasal sinuses
- air filled cavities located in frontal, sphenoid, ethnoid, and maxillary bones

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What are the functions of the Paranasal sinuses?
- 1. lighten the skull
- 2. moisten air- the lungs hate dryness
- 3. produce mucous
- a. Rhinitis- inflammation of mucous membrane in nose
- b. Sinusitis- inflammation of paranasal sinuses.
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Parts of the Nose
- 1. external nares
- 2. nasal cavity
- 3. internal nares
- 4. Paranasal sinuses
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Pharynx
- connects nasal cavity and mouth to larnyx and esophagus.
- commonly called the throat is directs food and air into the digestive and respiratory systems
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3 regions of the pharynx
- 1. nasopharynx
- 2. oropharynx
- 3. laryngopharynx

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Regions of Pharynx Diagram
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Larynx
- "voice box"
- located between laryngopharynx and trachea
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Functions of Larynx
- 1. patent airway
- 2. route air and food to proper channels
- 3. voice production
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Epiglottis
blocks larynx during swallowing
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Trachea
"windpipe" is a cylindrical tube extending from the larynx to the division into right and left primary bronchi above the base of the heart.
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Bronchi divisions
- Primary Bronchi
- -->Secondary bronchi
- -->Tertiary bronchi
- --> Bronchioles
- --> Terminal bronchioles
- --> Respiratory bronchioles
- --> alveoli duct
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4 parts of Respiratory Membrane
- 1. Alveoli; single layer of squamous epithelial cells (type I cells) on basal lamina
- 2. Capillary wall
- 3. Type II cells which secrete surfactant
- 4. Alveoli: elastic fibers, alveolar pores & contain alveolar macrophages (dust cells)
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3 steps in the mechanics of breathing
- 1. pulmonary ventilation: mechanical movement of air into and out of the lungs
- 2. External respiration is the exchange of gases between the lungs and the pulmonary capillaries
- 3. Internal respiration is the exchange of gases between systemic capillaries and tissue.
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Inhalation
- active process using inspiratory muscles (diaphragm and intercostal muscles)
- as the diaphragm contracts, it increases the size of the thoracic cavity which causes the volume of the lungs to expand and decreases the pressure inside the lungs
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Forced Inspiration
recruits extra muscles to inhale more. uses scalenes, sternocleidomastoid, and pectoralis minor
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Expiration
- passive: depends on elasticity of lungs, elastic recoil of lungs and chest cavity
- due to pressure gradients in the opposite direction of inspiration.
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Forced expiration
active using abdominal wall muscles (oblique and transversus) to increase intra-abdominal pressure and depress the rib cage.
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Alveolar surface tension
interface between gas and liquid where liquid molecules more strongly attracted to each other than gas molecules, resists increase in surface area
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surfactant
interferes with cohesiveness of water molecules
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Respiratory volumes
- 1. tidal volume
- 2. inspiratory reserve volume
- 3. expiratory reserve volume
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tidal volume
volume during normal, quiet breathing
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Inspiratory Reserve volume
extra volume during forced inspiration
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expiratory reserve volume
amount of addition air that can be expired beyond tidal volume
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Dalton's law of partial pressures
- total pressure of gas is the sum of pressure exerted independently by each gas.
- partial pressure; proportional to percentage of each gas in total mixture
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which gas in our air has the highest partial pressure? the lowest?
- highest: N2 =598
- lowest: CO2= .3
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What is the value of our atmospheric pressure?
760 mmHg
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Henry's law (dissolving gasses)
- When in contact with liquid, each gas will dissolve proportional to its partial pressure.
- volume of gas that will dissolve also depends of solubility
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External respiration
- the exchange of gases between the lungs and the pulmonary capillaries where blood gains O2 and loses CO2
- Partial pressure differences in gases drives movement
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Pressure differences during External respiration
- Venous blood O2 = 40; Alveoli = 104
- Venous blood CO2 = 45; Alveoli = 40
- CO2 is more soluble than O2
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How thick is the respiratory membrane and why is this significant?
- .5-1.0 um thick.
- Anything that interferes with this causes gas exchange problems (ex: pneumonia)
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Internal respiration
opposite movement of gas from external respiration
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How is oxygen transported by blood?
- 98% is bound to hemoglobin and the rest is dissoved in plasma
- Reduced hemoglobin binds O2 and becomes oxyhemoglobin
- oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve: binding of 1 molecule of O2 makes it easier to bind more O2
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Oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve
- binding of 1 molecule of O2 makes binding of more O2 easier
- Unloading of 1 molecule O2 enhances unloading of next
- O2 unloading accelerated at increased temperature and increased partial pressure (decreased pH); these are the responses to increased metabolism
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Impairments of O2 transport
- Anemic hypoxia- low levels of hemoglobin
- Ischemic hypoxia- exposed to less oxygen
- Histotoxic hypoxia- exposure to cyanide gas
- Hypoxemic hypoxia- CO poisoning
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How is CO2 transported?
- 10% dissolved
- 30% bound to carbaminohemoglobin
- 60% carbonic acid and bicarbonate ions
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Internal Respiration Diagram
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External Respiration Diagram
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Haldane Effect
- The lower the partial pressure of O2 and hemoglobin saturation, the more carbon dioxide is carried in blood.
- this is because O2 and CO2 are competing for binding sites
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What are the two Locations of Neural respiratory control?
- Medullary Respiratory Centers
- Pons Respiratory Centers
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what are the two parts of the Medullary respiratory centers?
- 1. Dorsal respiratory group
- 2. ventral respiratory group
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What are the 2 parts of the Pons respiratory centers?
- 1. Pneumotaxic center
- 2. Apneustic center
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Dorsal respiratory group
- part of the Medullary respiratory centers
- integrates signals from peripheral receptors
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Ventral respiratory group
- part of the Medullary respiratory centers
- rhythm generating and integrative center
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Pneumotaxic center
- part of the Pons respiratory centers
- modifies action of ventral respiratory group; can slow breathing
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Apneustic center
- Part of the Pons respiratory centers
- Hypothesized
- thought to stimulate the pneumotaxic center
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Hypercapnia
Hypocapnia
- rise in blood CO2
- low blood CO2
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Hyperventilation
Hypoventilation
- depth and rate of breathing increase
- slow and shallow breathing
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Breathing in birds
air sacs; air moves from nostrils into posterior air sacs, lungs, anterior air sacs and is then expired. complete cycle takes 2 inhalations/ exhalations.
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