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Parasympathetic
- -autonomic nervous system
- -"rest-and-digest"
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Sympathetic
"fight-or-flight"
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Hindbrain
contains cerebellum, medulla, oblangata, and reticular formation
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Midbrain
contains inferior and superior colliculi
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Forebrain
Contains thalamus, hypothalamus basal ganglia, limbic system, and cerebral cortex
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Thalamus
relay station for sensory information
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Hypothalamus
- -maintains homeostasis
- -integrates with endocrine system through the hypophyseal portal system that connects it to the anterior pituitary
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Basal ganglia
smoothens movements and helps maintain postural stabililty
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Limbic system
- Controls emotion and memory.
- Includes septal nuclei (pleasure-seeking), amygdala(fear and aggression), hippocampus(memory), and fornix(communication with the limbic system)
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Lobes of the cerebral cortex:
- Frontal
- Parietal
- Occipital
- Temporal
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Frontal Lobe
- -Executive function
- -impulse control
- -long-term planning(prefrontal cortex)
- -motor function(primary motor cortext)
- -speech production(Broca's area)
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Parietal
- -Sensation of touch
- -pressure
- -temp.
- -pain(somatosensory cortex)
- -spatial processing
- -orientation and manipulation
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Occipital
Visual Processing
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Temporal
- -Speech processing(auditory cortex)
- -speech perception (Wernicke's area)
- -memory
- -emotion (limbic system)
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Acetylcholine
- -Voluntary muscle control
- -parasympathetic NS
- -attention and alertness
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Epinephrine and Norepinephrine
Fight-or-flight responses, wakefulness, alertness
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Dopamine
- -Smooth movements
- -Postural stability
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Serotonin
- -Mood
- -Sleep
- -eating
- -dreaming
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GABA
Brain "stabilization"
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Endorphins
Natural painkillers
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Sensation vs Perception
- Sensation=conversion of phys. stimuli into neurological signals
- Perception=processing of sensory information to make sense of its significance
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Threshold
the min. stimulus that causes a change in signal transduction
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Weber's Law
states that the JND for a stimulus is proportional to the magnitude of the stimulus, and this proportion is constant over most of the range of possible stimuli
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Signal detection theory
the effects of nonsensory factors, such as experiences, motives, and expectations, on perception of stimuli
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Response Bias
- examined using signal detection experiments with four possible outcomes:
- -hits
- -misses
- -false alarms
- -correct negatives
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Adaptation
a decrease in response to a stimulus over time
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Visual Pathway
Retina=>optic nerve=>optic chiasm=>optic tracts=>lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) of thalamus=>visual radiations=>visual cortex
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Utricle and saccule
detect linear motion
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semicircular canals
detect rotational acceleration
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Auditory pathway
cochlea=>vstibulocochlear nerve=>MGN of thalamus=>auditory cortex
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Bottom-up(data-driven) processing
- -recognition of objects by parallel processing and feature detection.
- -Slower but less prone to mistakes
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Top-down (conceptually-driven) processing
- -recognition of an object by memories and expectations, with little attention to detail.
- -Faster, but more prone to mistakes
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Gestalt Principles
ways that the brain can infer missing parts of an image when it is incomplete
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Habituation
the process of becoming used to a stimulus
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Dishabituation
occurs when a second stimulus intervenes, causing resensitization to the original stimulus
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Observational learning
the acquisition of behavior by watching others
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Associative learning
pairing together stimuli and responses, or behaviors and consequences
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Classical conditioning
a form of associative learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus such that the neutral stimulus alone produces the same response as the unconditioned stimulous, the neutral stimulus thus becomes the conditioned stimulus
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Operant Conditioning
a form of associative learnign in which the frequency of a behavior is modified using reinforcement(increases behavior) or punishment(decreases the behavior)
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Dyssomnias
- amount or timing of sleep
- Ex.) insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnea, sleep deprivation
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Parasomnias
- Odd behaviors during sleep
- Ex.) night terrors, sleep walking(somnambulism)
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Drug addiction
- mediated by the mesolimbic pathway, which includes the nucleus accumbens, medial forebrain bundle and ventral tegmental area
- (Dopamine is the main neurotransmitter)
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Encoding
process of putting new information into memory
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Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development
- Sensorimotor stage
- preoperational stage
- concrete operational stage
- formal operational stage
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Sensorimotor stage:
Focuses on manipulating the environment to meet physical needs through circular reactions; Object permanence ends this stgae
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Preoperational stage
focuses on symbolic thinking, egocentrism(ability to imaginve what another person thinks of feels) and centration(focusing on only one aspect of a phenomenon
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Concrete operational stage
focuses on understanding the feelings of others and manipulating physical (concrete) objects
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Formal operational stage
focuses on abstract thought and problem solving
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Deductive reasoning
deriving conclusions from general rules
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Inductive reasoning
deriving generalizations from evidence
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Heuristics
simplified principles used to make decisions based; "rules of thumb"
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Selective Attention
allows one to pay attention to a particular stimulus while determining if additional stimuli require attention in the background
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Divided attention
uses autonomic processing to pay attention to multiple activities at one time
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Wernicke's area
- language comprehension;
- (Wernickes aphasia=fluent, nonsensical aphasia with lack of comprehension)
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Broca's area
Motor function of speech; (Broca's aphasia=nonfluent aphasia in which generating each word requires great effort)
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Arcuate fasciculous
connects Wernicke's and Broca's areas; damage results in conduction aphasia(inability to repeat words despite intact speech generation and comprehension)
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Motivation Theories
Instinct theory=innate, fixed patterns of behavior in response to stimuli
Arousal theory=the state of being awake and reactive to stimuli;aim for optimal level of arousal for a given task(Yerkes-Dodson Law)
Drive reduction theory=individuals act to relieve internal states of tension
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Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
- prioritizes needs into 5 categories:
- 1. Physiological needs(highest priority)
- 2. Safety and security
- 3. Love and belonging
- 4. self-esteem
- 5. Self-actualization(lowest Priority)
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Seven universal emotions
- Happines
- sadness
- contempt
- surprise
- fear
- disgust
- anger
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James-Lang theory of Emotion
Physical arousal instigates the experience of a specific emotion
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Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
Emotions and bodily changes do not share a cause-and-effect relationship. Rather, they occur simultaneously, following a stimulating event.
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Schachter-Singer theory of emotion
People's experience of emotion depends on two factors: physiological arousal and the cognitive interpretation of that arousal.
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Primary appraisal
classifying a potential stressor as irrelevant, benign-positive, or stressful
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Secondary appraisal
directed at evaluating whether the organism can cope with the stress based on harm, threat and challenge
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Three stages of the general adaption syndrome
alarm, resistance, and exhaustion
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Self-concept
the sum of the ways in which we describe ourselves: in the present, who we used to be, and who we might be in the future
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Identities
individual components of our self-concept related to the groups to which we belong
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Self-esteem
our evaluation of ourselves
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Self-efficacy
the degree to which we see ourselves as being capable of a given skill in a given situation
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Locus of control
- a self-evaluation that refers to the way we characterize the influences in our lives.
- Either internal(success or failure is a result of our own actions) or External(success or failure is the result of outside factors)
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Schizophrenia
psychotic disorder characterized by distortions of reality and disturbances in content and form of thought, perception, and behavior
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Positive symptoms
include hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized thought and behavior.
-
negative symptoms
disturbance of affect and avolition
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Major depressive disorder
contains at least one major depressive episode
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Pervasive depressive disorder
a depressed mood (either dysthymia or major depression) for at least 2 years
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Bipolar 1 disorder
contains at least one manic episode
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Bipolar II disorder
contains at least one hypomanic episode and at least one major depressive episode
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Cyclothymic disorder
contains hypomanic episodes with dysthymia
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Freud's stages of psychosexual development
In Freudian psychology, psychosexual development is a central element of the psychoanalytic sexual drive theory, that human beings, from birth, possess an instinctual libido (sexual energy) that develops in five stages. Each stage – the oral, the anal, the phallic, the latent, and the genital – is characterized by theerogenous zone that is the source of the libidinal drive. Sigmund Freud proposed that if the child experienced sexual frustration in relation to any psychosexual developmental stage, he or she would experience anxiety that would persist into adulthood as a neurosis, a functional mental disorder.[1][2]
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Erikson's stages of psychosocial development
- -stems from conflicts that are the result of decisions we are forced to make about ourselves and the environment around us at each phase of life
- -trust v mistrust; autonomy vs. shame and doubt; initiative vs guilt, industry vs inferiority, identity vs role confusion......
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Kholberg's theory of moral reasoning development
- -describes the approaches of individuals to resolving moral dilemmas
- -6 stages divided into 3:
- Preconventional
- Conventional
- Postconventional
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Panic disorder
- recurrent attacks of intense, overwhelming fear and sympathetic nervous system activity with no clear stimuli.
- (It may lead to agoraphobia)
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Dissociative amnesia
inability to recall past experience. May involve dissociative fugue, a sudden change in location that can involve the assumption of a new identity
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Dissociative identity disorder
two or more personalities that take control of behavior
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Depersonalization/derealization disorder
feelings of detachment from the mind and body, or from the environment
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Psychoanalytic perspective
- -personality results from unconscious urges and desires
- -Freud: id,superego,ego
- -Jung: collective unconscious and archetypes
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Humanistic perspective
- Emphasizes internal feelings of healthy individuals as they strive toward happiness and self-realization
- Maslow: hierarchy of needs
- Rogers: unconditional positive regard
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Conversion disorder
unexplained symptoms affecting motor or sensory function
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Personality disorder clusters
- Cluster A: (odd, eccentric, "weird") paranoid schizotypal, schizoid
- Cluster B: (dramatic, emotional, "wild") antisocial, borderline, narcissistic
- Cluster C: (anxious, fearful, "worried) avoidant, dependent, obsesive-compulsive
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