BIOLOGY

cleavage: mitotic divisions

implantation: embryo implants during blastula stage

gastrulation: ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm

neurulation: germ layers develop a NS

• NS
• epidermis
• lens of eye
• inner ear

• muscles
• skeleton
• circulatory system
• gonads 
• kidneys

• lining of digestive tract
• lungs
• liver 
• pancreas

• gluconeogenesis
• processing of nitrogenous wastes (urea)
• detoxification of wastes/ chemicals/ drugs
• storage of iron and vitamin A
• synthesis of bile and blood proteins
• beta-oxidation of fatty acids to ketones
• interconversion of carbohydrates, fats, adn amino acids

• stratum..
• - corneum
• - lucidum
• - granulosum
• - spinosum
• - basalis

stimulates Na+ reabsorption, K+ and H+ secretion, increasing water reabsorption, blood volume, and blood pressure

secreted from adrenal cortex

is regulated by the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system

• increases collecting duct's permeabilit to water to increase water reabsorption
• --> is secreted from posterior pituitary with high [solute] in the blood

Kidneys: regulate [salt] and [water] in the blood; functional unit is the nephron

act via second messengers

act via hormone/ receptor binding to DNA

• FSH
• LH
• Adrenocorticotropic (ACTH)
• prolactin
• endorphins
• GH

stimualtes follicle maturation; spermatogenesis

stimulates vulation; testosterone synthesis

stimulates adrenal cortex to make and secrete glucocorticoids

stimulates the thyroid to produce thyroid hormones

stimulates milk production and secretion

inhibits the perception of pain in the brain

stimulates bone and muscle growth/ lipolysis

• oxytocin
• ADh (vasopressin)

stimulates uterine contractions during labor, milk secretion during lactation

stimulates water reabsorption in kidneys

T3, T4

calcitonin

stimulates metabolic activity

decreases (tones down) blood calcium level

PTH: increases blood calcium level

glucocorticoids: increase blood glucose level and decreases protein synthesis; anti-inflammatory

mineralocorticoids: increases blood glucose level and heart rate

glucagon: stimulates conversion of glycogen to glucose in the liver; increases blood glucose

insulin: lowers blood glucose; increases glycogen stores

somatostation: suppresses secretion of glucagon and insulin

melatonin: regulates sleep-wake cycles

atrial natriuretic peptide: involved in osmoregulation and vasodilation

thymosin: stimulates T-cell development

initiation: depolarization of a neuron leads to an action potential

sarcomere shortening: sarcoplasmic reticulum releases Ca2+; Ca2+ binds to troponin on the actin filament; tropomyosin shifts, exposing myosin-binding sites; myosin binds, ATPase activity allows myosin to pull thin filaments towards the center of the H zone, and then ATP cases dissociation

relaxation: Ca2+ is pumped back into the SR

inorganic ions are absorbed from the blood for use in bone

inorganic ions are released into the blood

blood travels through an extra capillary bed before returning to the heart

• liver (hepatic)
• kidney
• brain (hypophyseal)

foramen ovale: connects right and left atria

ductus arteriosus: connects pulmonary artery to aorta; along with foramen ovale, shunts blood away from lungs

ductus venosus: connects umbilical vein to inferior vena cava, connecting umbilical circulation to central circulation

aqueous mix of nutrients, wastes, hormones, blood proteins, gases, and salts

Beta lymphocytes--->

• memory cells: remember antigen, speed up secondary response
• plasma cells: make and release antibodies (IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, and IgE) which induce antigen phagocytosis

antibodies produced during an immune response

antibodies prodcued by one organism are transferred to another oganism

• t-lymphocytes-->
• 1) cytotoxic T cells
• 2) helper T cells: activate B- and T-cells and macrophages by secreting lymphokines
• 3) suppressor T-cells: regulate B-and T-cells to decrease anti-antigen activity
• 4) memory cells

includes skin, passages lined with cilia, macrophages, imflammatory response, and interferons

• 1) Chyme present--> duodenum secretes CCK into blood
• 2) CCK stimulates secretion of pancreatic enzymes and bile, and promotes atiety
• 3) Bile made in liver and emulsifies fat in small intestine
• 4) Lipase made in pancrease; hydrolyzes lipids

trypsin: converts chymotrispinogen to chymotrpsin

chymotripsin

carboxypeptidases A and B: hyrolyzes terminal peptide bond at C-termimus

aminopeptidase

dipeptidase

enteropeptidase