Extra Bio

breakdown of very long chain fatty acids via beta oxidation

parenchyma; or the functional parts of the organ

stroma or support structure

single celled organisms that are similar to bacteria but have genes and metabolic pathways more similar to euk

gram positive: have peptidoglycan; provides protection from host's immune system; lipoteichoic acid

gram negative: very thin; contain peptidoglycan in smaller amounts; have outer membranes with phospholipids and lipopolysaccharides, which trigger larger response in humans than lipoteichoic acid

traits that increase how pathogenic a bacterium is

integration of foreign genetic material into the host genome

bacterial form of mating; involves conjugation bridge; donor male and recipient female; sex pili

requires a vector to carry genetic material from one bacterium to another

• a capsid, whcih is a protein coat
• an envelope which surrounds the capsid

viral progeny

genome directly translated to functional proteins

require synthesis of RNA complementary to negative sennse then protein synthesis

must go to the nucleus in order to be transcribed to mRNA, which tehn goes to the cytoplasm, where it is translated to protiens

small plant pathogens consisting of a very short circular single stranded RNA

the cell determines if the DNA is in good enough condition for synthesis; restriction point

require the presence of the right cyclins, which increase and decrease during specific stages; they bind to CDKs, creating complexes that can phosphorylate transcription factors

homologous chromosomes are separated; reductional division

separation of sister chromatids; equational division

96 sister chromatids and 46 chromosomes, which are organized into homologous pairs

46 chromatids in 23 chromosomes

refers to the tendency for genes to be inherited together; genes that are located further from each other are less likely to be inherited together and more likely to undergo crossing over relative to each other

each chromosome of paternal origin separates from its homologue of maternal origin and either chromosome can end up in either daughter cell

short rest period during which chromosomes partially recoil between meiosis I and II

seminiferous tubules: produces sperm (sertoli cells nourish them)

interstitial cells of Leydig: secrete testosterone nad otehr male sex hormones

flagella gain motility

vas deferens-> ejaculatory duct--> urethra

contribute fructrose to nourish sperm

along with seminal vesicles, they give fluid alkalinity to allow it to survive int he acidic female tract

produce clear viscous fluid that cleans any remnants of urine and lubricates urethra during arousal

diploid stem cells (spermatogonia)--> primary spermatocytes--> secondary spermatogcytes--> spermatids--(maturation)--> spermatozoa

each sperm head is coverted by an acrosome derived from the Golgi and necessary to penetrate the ovum

multilayered sacs taht contain, nourish, and protect immature ova (eggs)

ovulated through peritoneal sac

drawn into fallopian tube


if fertilized, the fetus is developed in the uterus

1) no undending supply of stem cells; all are formed during fetal development

all oogonia exist as primary oocytes by irth; after mearching menarche, one will complete meiosis I, producing a secondary oocyte and a polar body; the secondary oocyte is arrested in metaphase II and will not move forward unless fertilziation occurs

zona pellucida: surrounds oocyte and is acellular mix of glycoproteins that proteect oocyte and contain things for sperm to bind


corona radiata: lies outside and adhered to oocyte during ovulation

when sperm penetrate the laers

gonadotropin-releasing hormone: triggers anterior pituitary to release FSH and LH

stimulates SErtoli cells and triggers sperm maturation

causes interstitial cells to produce testosterone

estrogen is secreted in response to it

aside from developing female reproductive sysem adn sexual characteristics, it thickens lining of uterus

secreted by corpus luteum in response to LH; maintains the endometrial lining

sheding of uterine lining

GnRH increases--> FSH and LH secretion

follicles are developing, secreting estrogen, which turns off GnRH and, as a result, LH and FSH

when estrogen cycles reach threeshold; it results in positive feedback and FnRH, FSH, and LH levels spike

LH causes formation of corpus luteum from ruptured follicle, which secretes progesterone; estrogen levels still high

implantation doesn't occur; corpus luteum loses stimulation

zygote develops into bastocyyst that implants in uterine lining and secretes human chorionic gonadotropin; critical during first trimester

it forms a tubelike structure called the acrosomal apparatus, which extends to and penetrates the cell membrane

the cortical reaction, a release of calcium ions to depolarize the membrane of the ovum to prenet fertilization by multiple sperm and to increase the metabolic rate of the newly formed diploid zygote

cleavage: zygote undergoes rapid mitotic cell divisions, forming a morula

blastulation: formation of blastula (hollow ball of cells with luid filled inner cavity called the blastocoel), also known as blastocyst, which has a trophoblast adn an inner cell mass

burrows into endometrium

gastrulation: generation off the three distinct layers

cells that can still develop into complete organisms

cells with fates that are already determined

surround blastocoel and give rise to chorion and later placenta

protrudes into blastocoel and gives rise to organism itself

extraembryonic membrane that develops into the placenta

begins with small invagination in blastula (archenteron); cells move towrad invagination, eliminating blastocoel

this forms the gastrula

opening of archenteron is blastopore

give rise to integumentm; lens of the eye; nervous system, ear

musculoskeletal, circulatory, excretory, and sex organs, as well as conective tissue layers of digestinve, respiratory systems and adrenal cortex

epithelial lining of digestive adn respiratory tracts, pancreas, thyroid, bladder and distal urinary tracts

ability of one group of cells to influence the fate of other nearby cells

development of nervous system:

1) rod of mesodermal cels called notochord form axis, influencing cells to form neural folds, which surroudn a neural groove

the neural folds fuse into neural tube, with neural crest cells at tip

may cause nearby cells to follow a particular developmental pathway

after the sixteen cell stage and after a few more cycles of cell division when they differentiate into three gern cell layers

signals that act on teh same cell that secreted the signal in teh first cell

signals act on cells in the local area

cell stimulates receptors of adjacent cell

invovle secrted hormones that travel through the bloodstream

blood away from the heart (deoxygenated)

blood toward the heart (oxygenated)

1) foramen ovale: one-way valve that connects the right atrium to teh left atrium, allwoing blood entering the right atrium to flow into the left atrium instead of the right ventricle so as to carry out systemic circulation

2) ductus arteriosus: shunts leftover blood from teh pulmonary artery to teh aorta

3) ductus venosus: shunts blood returning from placenta via the umbilical vein directly to the inferior vena cava to bypass the liver

major organs begin to develop; endochondral formation

embryo becomes known as fetus

fetus undergoes trememdous growth; takes on human appearance

rapid growth and further brain development; antibodies transported by active transport from mom to fetus

accomplished by utermine smoth muscle, coordinated by prostaglandins and peptide hormone oxytocin

1) cevix thins out and sac ruptures

2) strong uterine contractions

3) placenta and umbilical cord expelled (afterbirth)

axons bundled together that carry only one type of info

nourish neurons and form the blood brain barrier

line ventricles of brain and produce CSF

phagocytic cells that ingest and break down wast and pathogens in the CNS

Na is higher outside; K is low outside

vice versa

caused by inhibitory input; it is lowering the membrane potential from its resting potential; makes neuron less likely to fire

additive effects of multiple signals

multiple signals are integrated during a relatively short period of time

the additive effects are based on the number and location of the incoming signals

absolute refractory period: no amount of stimulation can cause another action potential to occur

relative refractory period: there must be greater than normal stimulation to cause an action potential because the membrane is starting from a potential that is more negative than its resting value

faster propagation due to decreased resistence

1) breakdown of NT; ex: acetylcholinesterase breaks down acetylcholine

2) reuptake

3) simple diffusion

dorsal root ganglia

Somatic goes directly from spinal cord to muscle

autonomic requires two neurons, the preganglionic and the postganglionic neuron

constriction of blood vessels in all but active muscle

bind to extracellular receptors

response is rapid but short lived 

travel in bloodstream; don't need carriers

produced primarily by gonads and adrenal cortex

easily cross cell membrane and bind to recepotors intracellularly or intranuclearly

receptors then bind to DNA

not water soluble and must be carried to travel

less common but include epinephrine, norepinephrine, etc

catecholamines bind to G protien-coupled receptors, while thyroid hormones bind intracellularly

part of the hypothalamus that receives some of the light input from retinas and helps to control sleep-wake cycles

hypophyseal portal system

GnRH--> causes release of FSH and LH released from anterior pituitary

GHRH (Growth hormone-releasing Hormone)--> Growth Hormone (from ant. pit.)

Thyroid-releasing hormone (TRH)--> TSH (ant. pit., which acts on thyroid to release T3 and T4)

Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF)--> adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) (which causes cortisol to be released from adrenal cortex)

Prolactin-inhibiting factor: causes decrease in prolactin secretion

hypothalamus directly sends signals to release oytocin and antidiuretic hormone

• involved in bonding behavior
• uterine contraction
• milk letdown during lactation

increases reabsorption of water in the collecting ducts of the kidneys secreted in response to increased plasma osmolarity (increased concentration of solutes)

increases permeability of the duct to water

• FSH
• LH
• ACTH
• TSH

• Prolactin: stimulates milk production (dopamine secretion decreases it)
• Endorphins
• Growth hormone

• capable of resetting the basal metabolic rate of the body by making energy production more or less efficient, as well as altering the utilization of glucose and fatty acids
• lead to increased cellular respiration

produced by C-cells of the thyroid tissue;

acts to decrease plasma calcium levels in three ways: 

• 1) increase calcium excretion from the kidneys
• 2) decreased calcium absorption from the gut
• 3) increased storage of calcium in the bone

release PTH

• decreases excretion of calcium by kidneys
• increases absorption of calcium in the gut
• increases bone resorption, thereby freeing up calcium

antagonistic hormone to calcitonin

activates vitamin D

cortex and medulla

cortex releases corticosteroids--glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, and cortical sex hormones

steroid hormones that regulate glucose levels; affect protein metabolism

cortisol and cortisone: both raise blood glucose by increasing gluconeogenesis and decreasing protien synthesis; decrease inflammation and immunologic responses

cortisol released in times of physical or emotional stress

aldosterone: increases sodium reabsorption int he distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct of the nephron; water follows, increasing blood volume and pressure

plasma osmolarity does not change; maintains salt and water homeostasis

decreased blood pressure causes the juxtaglomerular cells of the kidney to secrete renin, which cleaves angiotensinogen to its active form, angiotensin I, which is converted to angiotensin II by antiotensin-convverting enzyme--> stimulates release of aldosterone

epineprhine and norepinephrine

alpha cells: glucagon

beta cells: insulin

delta cells: somatostatin: inhibits both insulin and glucagon secretion; decreases GH

atrial natriuretic peptide

releases thymosin, which is important for proper T cell development and differentiation

active

diaphragm

external intercostal muscles

the gas pressure in the lungs is higher than the pressure in the intrapleural space, causing the lungs to expand into the intrapleural space, adn the presure in the lungs to drop; 

air from the outside world will move in (negative pressure breathing)

contracts; chest wall and rib cage expand

relaxes; chest wall and rib cage contract

intercostal muscles and abdominal muscles can oppose the external intercostals and pull the rib cage down

max volume of air when one inhales completely

the minimum volume of air in teh lungs when one exhales completely

the difference between the min amd max volume of air in lungs (TLC-RV)

volume of air inhaled or exhaled in a normal breath

volume of additional air that can be forcibly exhaled

volume of additional air that can be forcibly inhaled after normal inhalation

ventilation center in the medulla oblongata

increase so more can be exhaled and levels fall

dilation allows large amount of thermal energy to be dissipated

contraction of capillaries conserves thermal energy

macophages

mast cells: have antibodies on their surfaces; when the right substance attaches, the mast cell releases inflammatory chemicals intot he surrounding area to promote an immune response

signals to increase the respiratory rate are sent to the brain

generate additional carbon dioxide

the body will slow the respiratory rate down to produce more hydrogen ions

H+ because H+ is a stronger acid than HCO3- is a base

tricuspid (three leaflets)

mitral; bicuspid valve (two leaflets)

• Impulse initiation occurs at the SA node-->
• signal reaches AV node, which sits at junction of atria and ventricle.

Signal delayed there untle ventricles fill completely

signal travels to bundle of His, embeldded int he interventricular septum, adn to Purkinje fibers, which distribte the electrical signal through the ventricular muscle

results in increase of atrial pressure that forces blood into the ventricles; extra volume of blood is called the atrial kick

the vagus nerve

ventricular contraction and closure of the AV valves; blood pmped out of ventricles

heart is relaxed, semilunar valves close, and blood from atria fill the ventricles

total blood vollume pumped by a ventricle in a minute

CO= HR X SV, where HR is the heart rate in beats per minute and the SV is the stroke volume (volume of blood pumped per beat)

highly muscular and elastic--> resistance

left heart must generate much higher pressure to overcome resistance caused by systemic arteries

thin walled and inelastic

less recoil

carry blood against gravity and so require skeletal muscle to help move blood

blood passes through two capillary beds in series before returning to heart

blood leaving the capillary beds int eh walls of the gut pass through the hepatic portal vein before recching the capillary beds in the liver

blood leaving capillary beds in hypothalamus pass through capillary be in anterior pituitary to allow paracrine secretion

blood leaving glomerulus travels through efferent arteriole before surrounding nephron in a capillary network called the vasa recta

measuremet of how much of the blood sample consists of RBCs

g: neutro, eosino, basophils; granules are visible

a: lympho; mono

- mature in spleen or lymph nodes: called B cells

thymus: T cells

responsible for antibody generation

kill virally infected cells and activate other immune cells

A antigens

anti-B antibodies

surface protein expressed on RBCs

as a ratio of systollic and diastolic pressures

pressure drops from arterial to venous circulation with the largest drop occurring across arterioles

V=IR can be translated to dP=CO x TPR, where dP is the pressure differential, CO is the cardiac output, and TPR is the total periopheral (vascular) resistance

arterioles and capillaries act like resistors in a circuit

• resistance is based on resistivity, length, and cross sectional area
• the longer a blood vessel is, the more resistance it offers
• the larger the cross sectional area, the less resistence

with the exception of the three portal systems, all systemic capillary beds are in parallel with each other. Therefore, opening capilalry beds will decrease vascular resistance and increase cardiac output

specialized neurons that detect changes in the mechanical forces on the walls of the vessel

atrial natriuretic peptide; if blood pressure is too high, it causes loss of salt

exists in blood as bicarbonate

it binds, decreasing the affinity of oxygen. This is the Bohr effect; this decreased affinity allows more oxygen to be unloaded at teh tissues

decreased permeability of Co2, decreased concentration of H+ increased pH, decreased temp, and decreased 2,3 BPG

• force per unit area that the blood exerts against the vessel walls
• generated by contraction of the heart and elasticity of the arteries

sucking pressure generated by solutes as they attempt to draw water into teh blood sttream

at the arteriole end, hydrostatic pressure > oncotic pressure; net efflux of water

venule end: hydrostatic pressure < oncotic; net influx of water

Startling forces

defenses that are always active against infection; cant target specific invaders

defenses that target a specific pathogen

location of blood storage and activation of B cells, which turn into plasma cells to produce antibodies as part of adaptive immunity, more specifically humoral immubity

involved in cell-mediated immunity

proved a place for immune cells to comunicate and mount an attack; B cells can be activated here as well

skin

defensins

acid

form of noncellular, nonspecific defense

classical pathway: binding of antibody to pathogen

alternative pathway: does not reqire antibodies

this system punches holes into the cell walls of bacteria

proteins that prevent viral replication and dipsersons by causing nearby cells to decrease production of both viral and cellular proteins

upregulate MHC class I and class II molecules

• phagocytizes
• digests
• presents little piences of invaders to other cells using a major histocompatibility complex

also releases cytokines, chemical substances that stimulate inflammation and recruit additional immune cells to the area

binds to pathogenic peptide and carries it to cell surface

any protein in a cell can be loaded onto this and presented, allowing montioring of helath of cells; infected cells have an unfamiliar cell

endogenous pathway: binds antigens from inside the ell

displayed by professional antigen-presenting cells like macrophages

these cells pick up pathogens, process them, and present them on MHC II

exogenous pathway: because antigens originated from outside

• macrophages
• dendritic cells in the skin
• some B-cells
• certain activated epithelial cells

can detect downregulation of MHC and induce apoptosis in virally infected cells

(nonspecific)

nonspecific

phagocytic; follow bacteria by using cheotaxis and can detect bacteria after they have been opsonized

nonspecific

release histamine, an inflammatory mediator, allowing immune cells to move to area

nonspecific

release large amounts of histamine in response to allergins

• macrophage
• mast cell
• granulocytes
• dendritic cells
• natural killer cells

• b cell: govern the humoral response
• t cell: mount the cell mediated response

production of antibodies

phenomenon in which only B or T cells that are specific to a certain pathogen are activated

Plasma cells: produce large amounts of antibodies

memory B cells: stay in lymph node, awaiting reexposure to same antigen

positive: refers to maturing only cells that can respond to presentation of antigen on MHC

negative:causing apoptosis in cells that are self reactive

helper T cells (CD4+ T cells): coordinate immune resposne by secreting chemicals called lymphokines, whcih can recruit other immune cells 

cytotoxic T cells (CD8+ cells): capable of directly killing virally infected cells by injecting toxic chemicals that promote apoptosis intot eh infected cells

Suppressor (regulatory) T cells: also express CD4; help to tone down immune response once infection has been contained; turn off self-reactive lymphocytes to prevent autoimmune diseases called self-tolerance

immune system is stimulated to produce antibodies against a specific pathogen; can be natural or artificia exposure

transfer of antibodies

• 1) equalization of fluid distribution
• 2) transportation of biomolecules via lacteals (for fats) 
• 3) immunity (b cells proliferate and mature in lymph nodes in collections called germinal centers

the sensationof thirst

feelings of hunger

feelings of satiety

carb and lipid digestion by salivary amylase and salivary lipase, respectively

fundus and body, which contains gastric glands, and the antrum and pylorus, whcih contain mostly pyloric glands

signals from teh vagus nerve

tenth cranial nerve or CN X, and interfaces with parasympathetic control of the heart and digestive tract.

mucous cells: produce mucus to protect wall of stomach

chief cells: secrete pepsinogen

parietal cells: secretes HCl; cleaves pepsinogen to pepsin