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John Locke
- Forerunner of behaviorism
- Focuses on reinforcement and punishment and believed that experiences influence behaviors
- Tabla rasa (blank slate): children are born blank and parents teach them
- Believed that children are born with temperaments
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Interdisciplinary & International
- Contributions are coming from all areas of studies involving multiple cultures
- Comparing and contrasting studies across cultures
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Jean-Jacques Rousseau
- Believed children are born pure, without sin
- Children have natural impulses and should express themselves as they see fit
- Child either corrupted or enriched by society,
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Psychodynamic
- Biology drives us
- Influenced by evolution: survival and reproduction
- Unconscious motives
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Behaviorism
- Environmental
- Our experiences produce permanent changes
- Importance of reinforcement and punishment to shape behaviors
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Constructivists
- Piaget
- Genetics (biology) AND environment interact directly to cause change
- Direct route
- Interaction and genes from parents
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Sociocultural
- Vygotsky
- Genetics and environment interact indirectly
- ex) culture and religion
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Evolutionary Theories
- Certain characteristics improve survival and those are more likely to be passed down to the next generation
- Has components of biology
- Based on Darwinism: traits that help survive and pass on genetics
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Information Processing Theories
- Processed, stored, organized retrieved, and used
- Becomes more efficient over time
- Children of a certain age cannot process certain info, but at later age they can
- ex) Dad's kids
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Socio-Learning Theories
- Modeling and reinforcement
- observe people and imitate-response is reinforcement/punishment
- ex) boy puts on makeup, shows parents, they respond
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System Theories - Dynamic
- Interactions of less complex systems lead to the development of more complex systems
- ex) reaching/grasping - visual and motor system combine to grab things
- Not good at first - batting/swatting; becomes more fine tuned
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Systems Theories - Ecological
- Microsystem: direct interaction/influence on child ex) nutrition, parents, peers
- Mesosystem: interaction between peers, parent, teacher, eighborhood, church **also interaction within the circle ex) parents interact with child peers
- Exosystem: environments that affect them, but children don't have access to ex) parents job - money and benefits
- Macrosystem: overall cultural values, customs, and resources ex) disposable diaper vs reusable diaper
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Objectivity
- Unbiased
- Can have reader and conductor bias
- Don't change or influence the results to fit your bias
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Reliability
- same results
- consistency, especially if only one person is a part of the study. If fail test today should not get 100% tomorrow
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Replicability
done again in the same manner either by you or others
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Validity
- is it truly measuring the variable?
- are you measuring them correctly?
- Intelligence test based on 3 questions is not valid
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Naturalistic Observation
- Observe and record
- Little to no interaction with participants - insures that behaviors don't change because of your presence (may not even ask people to participate)
- Gathers info before conducting experiment
- Can observe on or multiple behaviors
- Ethnography: detailed description of culture; live with another culture for period of time (not good for naturalistic observation b/c of interaction); compare cultural development
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Survey
- Predetermined set of questions
- Doesn't change from person to person
- Not experimental
- Used to find opinions, preferences, etc
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Correlational
- Shows the relationship between two variables
- Positive: both variable increase together
- Negative: on increases, other decreases
- Zero: no cause and effect
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Clinical Interviews
- adapt questions to each individual
- new questions depend on prior answer; focus on interested areas for clarification
- great for studying individual differences
- Individual differences need to be ignored to determine patterns between individuals
- Need more info, lots of DETAILS
- **Used in rare disorder to gain as much info as possible from one person
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Experimental Research
- Researcher manipulate one variable and measure the other
- IV: manipulated (class size)
- DV: measured (GPA)
- Random Assignment: present in IV; must have to classify as experiment
- Experiment control
- experimental group: receive manipulation
- control group: receives no manipulation
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Quasi-experimental
- Preexisting variable cannot be manipulated ex) gender, race/ethnicity/mental health
- can't always randomly assign/manipulate certain variables
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Longitudinal Research
Same children observed repeatedly over time
- Selective attrition: people more likely to drop out of study
- Non-representative Sample
- Practice effect: show improvement through practice, not changes in development
- Cross-generational problems: Out of date for new generations; no longer applies for 6yr olds
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Cross Sectional Research
- Children of different ages all compared at one time
- Given same task, see how answers change over ages
- Cohort effect: can't apply to other cohorts because of different experiences ex) effects of 9/11 or JFK Assassination (majo generational events
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Cohort Sequential
- Combo of cross sectional and longitudinal
- Same children from different age groups participate in whole test
- Test takes place over several years
- Shorter than longitudinal
- Minimizes/identifies cohort effect
- good choice if questioning development
- ex) 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
- 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
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Microgenetic
- Adaptation of longitudinal study, only hours or days
- Follows mastery of a task presented to child
- Exposed to experience, see if changes occur
- Problem: may get better with practice (practice effect), may get bored
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Genotype
- Genetic level
- ex) XX = female
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Phenotype
- Expression of genes through various media
- Physical - breast etc.
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Homozygous
- 2 of the same alleles (gene that influences specific trait)
- ex) PP (dominant) ; pp (recessive)
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Heterozygous
- Two different alleles
- ex) Pp
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Dominant
- Characteristics are expressed
- ex) broad lips, nearsighted, coarse hair
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Recessive
- Characteristics not expressed
- two recessives needed for recessive to be expressed pp
- ex) flat feet, lactose intolerance
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Polygenic
- Multiple genes affect displayed genes
- ex) height, eye color, body type
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Mutations
- Error in gene replication
- Missing or extra genes
- Part of evolution to improve
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Genetic Imprinting
- Alleles chemically marked to tell which parent it came from
- not sex linked
- ex) growth of fetus - mom want small, dad want big
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Down Syndrome
- 3 copies of chromosome 21
- Causes:mothers age, cell division, other possibilities
- PSYCH problems: intellectual disabilities
- Treatment: extra help in school; developmental therapies
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Sickle Cell Anemia
- Blood cells in sickle shape
- Causes: inherited abnormal hemoglobin LO2 carrying of protein w/ red blood cells
- PSYCH problems: may increase the feeling of pain; fear of unpredictable pain
- Treatment: daily dose of penicillin, folic acid for young kids
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Red-green color blindness
- x linked trait
- 2 recessive alleles to be seen in females
- More common in males - inherited from mother who must have recessive trait
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Klinefilter Syndrome
- Males born with extra X
- Low testosterone - puberty suppressed, infertility, gynecomastia
- Speech Language disabilities
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Turner's Syndrome
- Born w/ 1 X or missing part of X
- Short stature, stunted puberty, infertility
- Learning disabilities mainly in math
- Hormone treatments
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Eugenics
- Self directed human evolution
- sterilization, segregation, and selective breeding
- Nazis: Jews, gypsy, handicapped, prisoners deemed useless lives
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Plasticity
- Critical Period: if don't learn then, it might be impossible (genie)
- Sensitive Period: easier to learn in that time (2nd lang)
- Brains lose what they no longer really need - difference in lemurs face
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Range of reaction
- expressed characteristics depend on genes and environment
- ex) potential to be a genius must be nurtured through environment and opportunity
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Twin and Adoption Studies
- Identical Twin: same genetics, same environment
- Fraternal Twins: different genetics, same environment
- Adoption: genes and environment different
- sees if child more like mother or the family raised in
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Blood incompatibility
- Rh (protein) incompatibility
- mother (-) fetus (+)
- mother create antibodies that attack baby if exposed to baby's blood
- risks: intellectual disabilities, miscarriage, heart damage, death
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Maternal Age
- 30 & up higher risk of miscarriage
- 20 & 30s similar for prenatal and birth problems like low birth weight and preeclampsia
- Teenage = higher problem for infant - maybe more social than physical
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Nutrition
- Culture influences what you eat
- 2000-2800 calories ideal
- Bad nutrition = premature, low birth weight, abnormalities in cns, respiratory illness
- Studies on sensitive periods for nutrition during famines like netherlands
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Drugs and Pregnancy
- Baby born addicted to drugs - may need to be weened off
- low birth weight
- premature
- lang/learning delays possible
- Prescriptions
- ex) Thalidomide (combat morning sickness): treat morning sickness, children born w/o limbs
- ex) aspirin: thins baby blood
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Alcohol and Pregnancy
- Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder
- physical: smooth philtrum, eye problems, microcephaly
- PSYCH: intellectual disability, inappropriate sexual behavior
- Treat: counseling & school services
- Can't tell how much alcohol needed to affect
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AIDS
- Transmitted during pregnancy/ at birth
- preterm birth, low weight, weak immune system
- social and psych stigma
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Radiation
- Increase malformations, time of exposure determines whats affected
- microcephaly (small head), Intell Dis, growth, childhood cancer
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Pollution
- chemicals in environment have negative effect of fetus
- mercury in fish - cerebral palsy, skull deformities
- Lead poisoning - poor mental health and motor planning
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Learning in the Womb
- Learn moms voice
- Cat in hat study: read cat in hat 2x/day last month and half, prefered to other stories
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Social Expectation for Baby
- ideas based on gender; change environment
- if deformed shown less loving interactions
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Habituation
- attention decreases after first exposure
- ex) fascination with pen; if happened every time, no work ever done
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Dishabituation
- Slight change in original stimulus increases attention
- ex) highlighter vs pen
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Babinski, Moro, and Rooting Reflexes
- Babinski: stroke foot - toes fan and curl
- Moro: startle reflex; arms fling out and quickly bring in as if grabbing for something
- Rooting: stroke cheek, turn had, open mouth
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Imitation
- Babies can imitate simple expressions
- Mirror sticking out tongue
- Not sure if true imitation or not, baby not aware of copy
- Mirror neurons fire in the brain
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Crying
- Reflex, but will gain control
- causes unconscious reaction in us of protection - make baby stop crying
- In famines, crybabies more likely to live, crying gets their needs met
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Smiling
- Biological - automatic reflex, even newborns smile in rem sleep. same brain patterns for a while when awake
- Social - when you see someone smile your social reaction is to smile back. blind need feedback too. tactile, intonations, etc. they smile
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Maturation
- Natural biological stages (muscle strength, puberty)
- Brain matures over time (problem solving)
- Shift from reflex to coordination (sucking becomes nursing)
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Classical Conditioning
- associating a neutral stimulus with something that already causes a reflexive response
- ex) mother stroke baby head before nursing, eventually stroking causes baby to begin sucking
- UCS-milk
- UCR-nurse
- CS-stroke
- CR-nurse (lip suck)
- Linking to survival value makes conditioning easier
- if stroke w/ no milk response will fade
- Fear not conditioned until 6 months (little albert)
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Operant Conditioning
- behavior followed by stimulus that changes likelihood of behavior happening again
- Reinforcement - increase behavior
- Punishment - decrease behavior
- Social smiling uses reinforcement - baby smile, you smile, baby happy-like reaction, smile again
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Constructivist
- Piaget
- Schema: basic category of knowledge; gained throughout development (dog; pet)
- Assimilation: add info to schema; will not change schema significantly (small, furry, high pitch bark-can be big, longer fur than dog at home)
- Accommodation: significantly change or create new schema (see cat, say dog, get corrected -->new category
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Culture Influence on Baby
- Impact begins early
- Some influence can be indirect but still affect child development
- Culture -->mother (culture filter) --> child
- Child receives aspects of the culture that the mother wants it to receive
- Cultural variations ex) how long should a child be breast fed
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Brain and Visual Cliff
- Brain grows in size
- Crawling begins
- Plexiglas looks like cliff, younger children crawl over cliff; older children see as danger and only go to the edge
- same happened again when begin to walk
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Understanding Quantity
- Infants respond to differences
- 3 people stand in line; cover and remove one; baby knows something changed
- Not conclusive whether they truly know difference in amount or if they see difference
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Substage 3: Secondary Circular Reasoning
- aware that actions effect environment
- purposefully pick up toy to put in mouth
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Substage 4: Coordination of Secondary Circular Reaction
- Clear intentions and direct them towards goal
- Imitate others and explore environment
- recognize that objects have certain qualities
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Object Permanence
know that something still exists even when they cant see it
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A-not-B Error
- Use to blankets
- Hide object under one repeatedly
- Change to other blanket in plain view of child
- Child still pick 1st blanket
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Diamond 1991
- memory lasts only a few seconds; look one way even when they know better
- Repeat movements/actions
- Card sorting, when method changed, child did not change
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Categorizing
Group similar objects and eventsOrganize both physical and social worldReduces amount of new info they encounter every day
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Substage 5
Trial and error experimentation
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Substage 6
Symbolic representation
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Object permanence substage 6
- will search for object
- reason that it is close by
- less likely to make a not b error when watching
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Problem solving
- trial and error
- use what they learn from previous trial and error
- ex) trying to pull stick through crib
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Culture in Play
- might use some tool parents use in play ex) mother cook, daughter play cook/help with little things
- some cultures don't promote play
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Imitation
- Deferred imitation: imitating something seen at an earlier date, even when no have ability to complete before
- Can finish activities that others started or at least attempt to complete
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