-
-
- Organic
- compounds composed of only hydrogen and carbon
- - Hydrophobic (don’t like water)
- - C, H

-
-
-
Linear structure
-
Isomer
- same molecular formula (same # of atoms and
- same elements), but different structural formula(thus different properties)
-
Alcohols
- - Composed of C and H, but have no hydroxyl
- groups.
- -Polar.
- - C, H,O, (OH-)

-
Geometric Isomer
- same covalent partnerships, but differ in the arrangements of their double bonds.
-

-
Structural
- Differ
- in the arrangements of their atoms and may differ in the location of double
- bonds.

-
Hydroxyl
group- (---OH)or (HO---)
- Hydrogen
- atom is bonded to an oxygen atom, which bonds to the carbon skeleton of the
- organic molecule.

-
Carboxyl Functional group-
(--COOH)
- The entire group when an oxygen atom is double
- bonded to a carbon atom that is also bonded to an –OH group.

-
Phosphate Functional
group- (--OPO3)
- Phosphorus atom bonded to four oxygen atoms; one
- oxygen is bounded to the carbon skeleton; two
- oxygens carry negative charges.

-
- Consists of Nitrogen atom bonded to two hydrogen
- atoms to the carbon skeleton

-
 What Functional group does this bond belong to?
Amino Acid
-
 What functional group does this bond belong to?
Phosphate
-
 What functional group does this bond belong to?
Hydroxyl Group
-
 What functional group does this bond belong to?
Carboxyl
-
What is a functional group?
- 1)
- chemical
- groups that affect molecular function by being directly involved in chemical
- reactions.
- -hydrophilic and make compounds more hydrophilic (absorb in water)(increase
- solubility)
- The "R"
-
What Elements make up Carbohydrates?
(CH2O)
-
What elements make up alcohols?
-
What elements make up a hydrocarbon?
C,H
-
What elements make up a Lipid(fat)?
C,H,O(P,N)
-
Describe Dehydration
-
- ii.
- Use enzymes (macromolecules that speed up chemical
- reaction)
-
- iii.
- Linkage
- of small molecules to make larger molecules
Describe Hydrolysis
- i.
- Reverse of Dehydration
-
- ii.
- Inserts water to break a bond
-
- iv.
- Breaking
- large molecules into smaller molecules
What is a carbohydrate?
used as an energy source
What are the building blocks of a carbohydrate?
- Carbons
- hydrogens and oxygens
What are the building blocks of a protein?
- consists
- of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and sometimes sulfur
Fats
glycerol and fatty acids
Nueclotide Based Molecules
- 5
- carbon sugar,nitrogen base, and phosphate group (DNA, RNA)
Monosacharides-
(mono-single/one).
- Sugar
- , 3-7 carbons and 2 or more OH groups
- Those
- with 5 or more carbons form ring structures
- Formed
- by Dehydration Synthesis
- Examples:
- Sucrose (glucose and fructose), Lactose ( glucose and galactose) Maltose
- (glucose and glucose)
- Three or more monosaccharides
- Serve
- as storage macromolecules
- Ex.
- Starch – storage form of sugar serve as building materials
- Ex. - Cellulose- cell walls of plants
- -
- Glycogen – in animals. Form in which sugar is
- stored in certain animal tissues (liver & Muscle). Stored in small
- granules.
sucrose
glucose and fructose
lactose
glucose and glactose
maltose
glucose and glucose
What is a structural Isomer?
- Differ
- in the arrangements of their atoms and may differ in the location of double
- bonds. Same molecular, different structural formula.
What are 3 monosaccharide monomers?
- glucose,
- fructose, galactose
What are 3 disaccharide monomers?
- succross,
- lactoss, maltose
What are 3 examples of a pollysaccharide?
- Starch
- – storage form of sugar serve as building materials
- - Cellulose- cell walls of plants
- Glycogen – in animals. Form in which sugar is
- stored in certain animal tissues (liver & Muscle). Stored in small
- granules.
Describe a primary protein structure
- first)-the
- particular sequence and types of amino acids.
-
- i.
- like composing words from the alphabet
-
- ii.
- primary structure determined by the inherited
- genetic info.( not random linking!)

Describe a Secondary protein structure?
- )-“repeated
- pattern” or arrangement- hydrogen bonding responsible for helical patterns or sheet-like
- pat terns (Pleated sheets)
-
- i.
- Result of hydrogen
- bonds between the repeating constituents
- of the polypeptide backbone.

Tertiary
- (3rd)-three
- dimensional, globular or coiled, fibrous (helixes or pleated sheets may be
- parallel to eachother)
-
- i.
- Overall shape of a polypeptide resulting from
- interactions between othe sie chains of the amino acids

Quaternary
- 4th)-
- results from the interaction of 2 or more polypeptide chains.
-
- i.
- Overall protein structure that results from the
- aggregation of polypeptide units.
What are amino acids?
the building blocks of protiens?
what are the building blocks of amino acids
- i.
- Carboxyl and amino groups
What is the denaturation of proteins? and name an example
- 1)
- proteins are exposed to increased temperatures
- or chemicals. Loss of structure
- EX: egg whites before and after heat

what is an enzyme?
- 1)
- specialized macromolecules that speed up chemical
- reactions in cells
Components
of Nucleotides
- 5 Carbon Sugar- ribose and deoxyribose
- Nitrogen containing base (ring)
what is the function of the nucleotide based molecule, ATP(Adenosine Triphosphate)?
- High energy molecule that transforms energy
- around the cell. Nitrogen containing base, sugar and 3 phosphate groups.
what is the structure of ATP?
Nitrogen containing base, sugar and 3 phosphate groups.
what is DNA made up of?
Rungs(bases) and uprights (sugar and phosphate) thymine, guanine, cytosine, and adenine
What is RNA composed of?
the same as DNA expt instead of thymine it has uricile
what does NADH and FADH do?
- Transport H atoms and e- in metabolism. Roam
- around cell and pick up electrons to another
- part in cell and drop it off
-
this reaction is also reversable. it can loose the e and go from NADH to NAD
WHat is the structure of NADH?
- nicotinamide
- ,adenine ,dinucleotide
What is the structure of FADH?
- flavin,
- adenind, dinucleotide
Compare and contrast DNA and RNA
Describe Transcription
- 1)
- DNA (storehouses of instructions to build
- proteins). Enzyme,Helicase, unwinds DNA
- so expose instructions. Another molecule copies them to form RNA.
Describe Translation
- The RNA goes through
- the nuclear pores (gatekeeper) and takes it the Ribosome.
- The ribosome (like a machine) builds a
- specific type of amino acids. When the chain of amino acids are finished they
- move from the ribosome into a machine that folds it into its particular shape
- for function, a protein (like hemoglobin)
Lipids with fatty acid components
- i.
- fatty acid: consists of a carboxyl group
- attatched to a long carbon skeleton
-
- ii.
- don’t dissolve in water, waxed and cutin
Lipids without fatty acid components?
- i.
- Steroids, four carbon rings, hormones
What is a Triglyceride and what is its function?
- One glycerol with three fatty acids produce a
- triglyceride by bonding. When they bond dehydration occurs and the waters are
- taken out.
- It’s a fat, so it stores energy for animals
- and people
What is the function of a Phospholipid?
Make up cell membranes
Describe a phospholipid
- b. Has a hydrophilic head and two hydrophobic
- tails
- c. It has two (not three like
- they fat molecule) fatty acid tails
- attached to the glycerol head.
- d. form
- bilayer in environment with water.
Testosterone and Estrogen
saturated fat
- has
- a straight tail because all hydrogen have single bonds.(butter)
unsaturated fat
- has
- a kink in the tail because of the double bond in the hydrogen (oil)
what is a chromosome?
- a
- cellular structure carrying genetic material that is found in the nucleus of
- eukaryotic cells. A bacterial chromosome is found in the nuecleoid region
gene
- unit of
- hereditary info consisting of a specific nucleotide sequence of DNA
genetic code
sequence of chromosomes in a base pair
Cell Theory
- all organisms are composed of one or more cells.
- The cell is the basic living unit
- All cells arise from pre-existing cells
What are the common characteristics of cells?
- plasma membrane
- cytoplasm
- genetic material
how do cells differ?
size and structure. (morphology and physiolgy)
Plasma Membrane
- phospholipids
- are major component; controls what enters and leaves the cell (homeostatic)
Cytoplasm
- thick
- (like syrup), made of water and ribosomes.
Genetic Material
- DNA
- which is found in the nucleus of eukaryotes but found in the nucleoid region of
- prokaryotes
Prokaryotes
*Domain- Archaea and Bacteria
*Structurally less complex
*Average 1-10 microns
*No membrane bound organelles
*Nucleoid region
*Cell division by binary fission
Eukaryotes
- *Domain Eukarya Kingdoms- Plantae, Anamilia, Fungi, Protista
- *Structurally more complex
- *single and multicellular organelles
- *Larger than 10-100 microns(micrometers)
- *Membrane bound organelles
- *True nucleus
- * Cell division by cytokinesis preceeded by mitosis or meiosis.
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Campare and contrast Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
what is the function of the Nucleus
- contains
- most of the DNA in the cell and is surrounded by a double membrane.
Nuclear membrane
- i.
- separates the DNA in the nucleus from the
- rest of the cell. It also stores genetic information and controls cytoplasmic
- chemical reactions.
Necleoplasm
- i.
- The
- fluid contained within the nucleus of a eukaryote in
- which the chromosomes and nucleoli are found.
Nucleoli
- Found
- in the cytoplasm of the cell. composed of proteins and nucleic acids. Used in
- formation of ribosomes
Chromosomes
- genetic
- info. Single piece of coiled DNA
Nucleopores
security gate
Cytoplasm
- contains
- the rest of the organelles such as ER, mitochondria, etc. Outside of the
- nucleus
Rough ER
- - attached to the outside of the
- membrane. It is the machine that helps with protein synthesis. It reads the
- messenger RNA to make the new protien
- Smooth ER-contains
- enzymes involved in lipid and steroid synthesis and detoxification. lacks bound
- ribosomes
Smooth ER
- contains
- enzymes involved in lipid and steroid synthesis and detoxification. lacks bound
- ribosomes
Golgi bodies
- -Its
- like the post office and each mail truck is a message being sent. It receives
- substances from the ER, then it modify’s (sorts) them and packages them and
- sends them off to the plasma membrane
Mitochondria
contains a Matrix, cristae, inner membrane, outer membrane, intermembrane space,
Matrix
- i.
- contains DNA(not found in the nucleus) and
- enzymes involved in metabolic activities. Inclosed by the inner membrane. Involved in
- cellular resperation
Cristae
- formed
- by the inner membrane infoldings. Divides
- mitochondrion into two separate parts.
Inner Membrane
- Makes
- the folding that form Cristae. Narrow region between the inner and outer membranes
Outer Membrane
- - includes
- proteins that can be used by the matrix to convert lipid substances.
Intermembrane space
- contains
- enzymes that use ATP to phosphorylate
- other nuceotides
what is a Plastid?
closely related plant organelles
Chloroplasts
- site
- of photosynthesis. Convert solar energy to chemical energy by absorbing
- sunlight.
- Has a thylakoid membrane, grana, theylakoidj space and stroma
THylakoid membrane
- system of interconnected membranes that are arranged
- into stacked and unstacked regions called grana and stroma thylakoids.
Grana
- series
- of stacked thylakoid disks containing chlorophyll; found in the inner membrane
- of chloroplasts.
Thylakoid space
interior of thylakoids
Photosynthesis
takes place in the chloroplasts
stroma
surrounds the thylakoid space. Contains free ribosomes and copies of the chloroplst genome
Chromoplasts
- i.
- synthesize and cartenoid pigments, yellow,
- orange, red, or brown, that give flowers and fruits their color.
Leucoplasts
- Storage
- sites and synthesis for startch
- Can
- change into chloroplasts when exposed to light
Vacuoles and peroxisomes
- contain
- cell sap,water, sals, sugars, protein enzymes, storage agent. Increases cell
- area.
Lysosomes
- digest
- materials taken into the cell
Hydrolytic enzymes
made by rough ER, recycle the cells own genetic material
Intracellular digestion
carried out by lysosomes
Cytoskeleton
- network
- of fibers extending throughout the cytoplasm. (like the highway)Responsible
- for:
Actin filaments
globular, highly conserved
Intermediate filaments
family of related proteins that share common structural and sequence features
Microtubules
polymers that make up facilia and fagila in a 9 to 2 ratio. ( 9 outer, 2 inner)
flagella
- sperm tail
- turn in circle like boat moter to move
centrosomes
microtuble organizing center. regulator of cell cycle progression
ribosomes
make proteins from amino acids according to instructions from genes. On rough ER and free floating in cytoplasm
Centrioles
- i.
- composed
- of 9 microtubules. Located in cytoplasm
- replicates for animal cell divison
compare and contrast the plant and animal cell
- Animal Cells: Centriole Plant Cells: Chloroplast, Cell Wall Both: Cell Membrane, Mitochondrion, ribosomes, endoplasmic
- reticulum, nuclear membrane, nucleus, nucleolus, chromosome, vacuole, Golgi
- apparatus, cytoplasm, flagellum
how does a light microscope work?
- 1) In
- a light microscope, visible light is passed through a specimen and then through
- glass lenses. The lenses refract the light is such a way that the image of the
- specimen is magnified as it is projected into the eye, onto photographic film
- or digital sensor, ot onto a video screen.
how does an electron microscope work?
- 1) In
- an electron microscope it focuses a beam of electrons through the specimen or
- onto its surface.
describe the structer of membranes
made up of phospholipid bilayer and proteins
proteins components
- organic
- compounds made of amino acids
- -
Glycoprotein components and function
- contain
- glycan covalently attatched to polypeptide side chains.
- - They allow certain types of cell-to-cell communication, help coordinate
- complicated cellular responses to stimuli, and activate the action of other
- types of cells.
what is a glycoglipid composed of and its function
- glipids
- with carbohydrate attatched
-are carbohydrate attached lipids. Their role is to provide energy and also - serve as markers for cellular recognition.
cholesterol
- waxes,
- steroid, metabolite. Found in cell membrane
whats the difference between a transmembrane and peripheral proteins
1) Transmembrane are embeded into the membrane and peripheral are loosely attatched to the outside.
transport protein-
hydrophilic channel that certain molecules or atomic ions use as a tunnel through the membrane
enzymatic protein
a protein built into the membrane may be an enzyme with its ative site exposed to substances in the adjacent solution.
signal transduction psirotein
A membrane protein (receptor)may have a binding site with a specific shape that fits the shape of a chemical messenger, such as a hormone. the external messenger may cause a shape change in the protein that relays the message to the inside of the cell
intercellular joining protein
membrane bound proteins of adjacent cells may hook together in various kinds of junctions such as gap junctions or tight junctions
ECM
- microfilaments
- or other elements noncovalantly bounded
- to membrane proteins, function helps maintain cell shape and stabilizes location
- of certain mem. proteins
micrometer
one millionth 10 -6
decimeter
one hundreth of a meter 10-1
millommeter
10-3, one thousandth
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