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What determines the number of individuals in a population?
- Birth rate
- mortality rate
- Immigration
- Emigration
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2 LIFE TABLES.
NAME THEM AND WHY IS ONE BETTER?
- TIME..AT ONE TIME AT AGE OF DEATH
- AGE..FOLLOW COHORT THRU TIME
- AGE SPECIFIC IS BETTER.
- ALL ASSUME SEASONAL VARIATION!
- EXAMPLES:
- TREES AND RINGS.
- DEER AND LOWER JAW.
- FISH RINGS ON SCALES.
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IS dX OF THE LIFE TABLE COMPARABLE AMONG POPULATIONS?
WHY?
- NO.
- DEPENDS ON THE NUMBER YOU START WITH.
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IN THE LIFE TABLE WHY IS qX COMPAREABLE AMOUNG POPULATIONS?
QX IS A RATE!
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SURVIVORSHIP IN LIFE TABLE.
STATE EQUATION
- lX=nX/nO
- WHEN N
x IS NUMBER ALIVE AT START.
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WHAT ARE THE 3 TYPES OF FUNCTIONAL RESPONSES.
- 1. Type I – convex....K SELECTIVE. PARENTAL INVESTMENT
- 2. Type II – diagonal
- 3. Type III – concave...r SELECTIVE...TREES ARE TYPE 3 AS WELL.
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THE MOST BASIC DEMOGRAPHIC EQUATION
- DENSITY (OF A UNIT AREA) =
- (BIRTH +IMMIGRATION) - (DEATH + EMIGRATION)
- OR....
- D = IN - OUT
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In nature, X - X year and X-X year
cycles have been widely recognized at northern latitudes for a variety of birds
and mammals.
3-4 AND 9-10
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WHY DO CYCLES APPEAR TO AFFECT POPULATIONS?
- The cycles appear to be the result
- of synergistic interactions between food availability and predation.
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DEFINE Exponential population growth.
- a curve representing
- the number of individuals in a population that becomes steeper and steeper over
- time.
- Differential equation
- - assumes continuous reproduction
- DN = rN.
- Dt
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IN EXPONENTIAL GROWTH, r DEFINES WHAT?
natural increase or biotic potential {r}
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IF r=0 ON THIS CHART WHAT WOULD LINE LOOK LIKE?
FLAT
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IF r =( - NUMBER) ON THIS CHART WHAT WOULD LINE LOOK LIKE?
LINE WOULD GO DOWN.
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Very high intrinsic rates of
increase {r} can lead TO WHAT?
- chaotic population dynamics.
- R >7 AT LEAST.
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DEFINE CHAOS
the tendency of simple, deterministic systems under some circumstances to exhibit complicated and effectively unpredictable dynamics.
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DEFINE NUMERICAL RESPONSE
when predator numbers respond to changes in prey numbers, i.e., prey go up, predator increase; prey go down, predator decrease.
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Ways in which animals try to reduce predation:
- 1. Cryptic coloration
- 2. Aposematic coloration
- 3. Aggressive resemblance
- 4. Mimicry
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WHEN LOOKING AT A GROWTH CHART, THE INCREASE IN THE POPULATION FROM THE START IS SLOW.
WHAT TYPE OF SPECIES IS IT ? r OR K?
- K
- PARENTIAL INVESTMENTS.
- ELEPHANTS.
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LEMA PLANT, r OR K?
r FAST GROWTH.
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DEFINE Logistic population growth
- a population that begins to grow exponentially, then begins to level off as it approaches the carrying capacity.
- Logistic population growth is represented by an S-shaped or sigmoidal curve.

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DEFINE ALLEE EFFECT
A distinction is made between a "strong Allee effect", where a population exhibits a "critical size or density
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DEFINE TIME-LAGS
- the result of delayed feed-back in population density; can result in population
- fluctuations.
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DEFINE Population regulation
- the process by which environmental interactions determine the density of a population.
- HISTORICALLY, IT WAS VIEWED AS RESULTING IN EQUILIBRIUM (POPULATION) DYNAMICS.
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DEFINE Density-dependence
- A factor or factors affecting population size whose intensity of action varies with density; that is, densities at time t influence densities at time t + x.
- PRESENT EFFECT FUTURE. THINK ABOUT THE K CAPACITY.
- GRIME TRIANGLE. COMPETITION FROM OTHERS.
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DEFINE Density-independence
- having influence on individuals in a population that does not vary with the degree of crowding.
- THINK GRIME'S TRIANGLE. STRESS, COMPETITION AND DISTURBANCE.
- DENSITY INDEPENANCE= STRESS OR DISTURBANCE. SOMETHING OUTSIDE OF THE POPULATION IS WORKING IT DOWN.
- NON EQUILIBRIUM DYNAMICS = DENSITY INDEPENDENCE.
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IN REGURDS TO GRIMES MODEL WHAT 2 FACTORS RELATE TO DENSITY INDEPENDANCE?
DENSITY INDEPENANCE= STRESS OR DISTURBANCE. SOMETHING OUTSIDE OF THE POPULATION IS WORKING IT DOWN.
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IN REGARDS TO NON-EQUILIBRIUM DYNAMICS, WHAT CORRELATES TO IT:
DENSITY DEPENDANT OR INDEPENDENT?
- INDEPENDENT.
- THINK HURRICANE COME ALONG, THAN A FIRE.
- POPULATION KEEPS ON GOING BUT NO INTERNAL COMPETITION.
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WHAT WOULD A CHART LOOK LIKE FOR A DENSITY DEPENDANT BIRTH/ DEATH RATE LOOK LIKE?
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IF THE BIRTH AND DEATH RATE WERE INDEPENDENT, WOULD THEY CROSS ON A CHART?
- NO.
- NO EQUILIBRIUM POINT.
- BOTH BOUNCE ALL OVER THE CHART.
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DENSITY DEPENDANT OR INDEPENDENT?
DEPENDANT.
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T OR F
Population dynamics resulting from density-independent factors have generally been assumed to be nonequilibrium dynamics.
TRUE
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Density-independent population dynamics can result from:
- 1. Fire
- 2. Floods
- 3. Ice-storms
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Density-dependent factors may be divided into two categories.
NAME THEM
- 1.Extrinsic – the population’s response to interaction with other members of the community.EXTERNAL
- 2. Intrinsic-the populations own response to its density.
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DEFINE EXTRINSIC AND GIVE 4 EXAMPLES.
- Extrinsic – the population’s response to interaction with other members of the community.
- Extrinsic factors:
- 1. Predation
- 2. Parasitism
- 3. Interspecific competition
- 4. Disease
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DENSITY DEPENDANT OR INDEPENDENT?
- DENSITY DEPENDANT.
- DEPENDANT UPON THEIR FOOD.
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DEFINE INTRINSIC AND GIVE 6 EXAMPLES.
- the populations own response to its density.
- Territoriality..COUGAR/MULE
- Reproductive inhibition... FEMALE MOUSE/HORMONES
- Dispersal...MOLES..TO HIGH..TAKE OFF.
- Stress..RABBITS..HORMONES..CORTICAL STEROIDS.
- Ideal free distribution...WOOD LOTS. DISTRIBUTION OF DENSITY.
- Intra-specific competition...FROM SPECIES OF SAME POPULATION.
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DENSITY DEPENDANT OR INDEPENDENT ?
- BOTH!
- DIFFERENT MECHANICS!
- 1ST PEAK IS DEPENDANT..POP EFFECTED SIZE.
- 2ND INDEPENDENT...WAS EXTERNAL, WEATHER.
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DEFINE Intraspecific competition AND THE 2 TYPES.
- Intraspecific competition –competition between members of the same species for a limiting resource.
- 1.Exploitation – using up the resource before other individuals obtains access (scramble). GET IT 1ST.
- 2. Interference –involves direct interaction among competing individuals of the same species (contest). FIGHT.
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IN SOURCE/SINK DYNAMICS, Source population : birth rate > death rate; population regulated by WHAT?
- emigration.
- WILL STAY WITHIN RANGE.
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IN SOURCE/SINK DYNAMICS, Sink population : birth rate < death rate; population maintained by WHAT?
- immigration.
- NOT REGULATED.
- CAN BECOME EXTINCT.
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DEFINE META-POPULATIONS AND WHAT CAN RESULT FROM THEM.
- spatially subdivided populations that are interconnected by occasional dispersal events.
- occasional dispersal events can result in recolonization of patches in which populations have gone extinct.
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DEFINE COMMENSALISM
- STRONG SPECIES IS NOT EFFECT WHILST WEAKER SPECIES BENEFITS.
- BIRDS ON A WATER BUFFALO.
- SHARK AND THE RAMORAS.
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DEFINE Optimal foraging
a set of rules, including breadth of diet, by which organisms maximize food intake per unit of time or minimize the time required to meet their food requirements.
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DEFINE CURRENCY
a measure of what the individual is trying to maximize; traditionally this was energy; more recently fitness.
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Biased Random Walk occurs when?
movement towards a particular point.
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Correlated Random Walk occurs when?
subsequent movements influenced by previous movement.
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WHAT THE HELL IS A BCWA
BCWA = Biased Random Walk + Correlated Random Walk
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WHO?
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DEFINE " GIVING UP DENSITIES"
- The level at which an individual ceases to use a particular resource.
- Resources interspersed among a matrix.
- Based on optimal foraging theory.
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IN A GIVING UP DENSITY(SEEDS) GRAPH, THE LOWER OR SMALL THE NUMBER THE MORE FEEDING OCCURS.
TRUE OR NOT?
- TRUE.
- SHOW HOW MUCH FOOD IS LEFT TO CONSUME IN EACH INSTANCE.

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INTERPRET THIS GRAPH IN REGARDS TO THE PREDATORS INFLUENCE.
- THE DEGUS FED MORE WHEN THE PREDATORS WERE TAKEN OUT.
- REMEMBER THAT THE GUD SHOW WHAT WAS LEFT AFTER FEEDING!!!
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2 TYPES OF COMPETION?
- ENTRINISTIC (IN)
- EXTRINSTIC (OUT)
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WHAT TYPE OF COMETITION WAS SHOWN BTN
Octodon degus (DAY) AND Phyllotis darwini (NITE)?
- SCRAMBLE COMPETITION.
- WHO GETS IT FIRST.
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ACCORDING TO THIS GRAPH, WHERE WAS FEEDING DONE MORE?
- ELEVATED.
- LOWER NUMBER SHOWS WHAT'S LEFT AFTER FEEDING.
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Although many herbivores can be considered grazers or browsers, types of herbivory are much more wide ranging
NAME SOME!
- Frugivory
- Seed predation
- Nectivores
- Leaf mining
- Roots
- Sap suckers..WOODPECKER AND APHIDES
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Herbivory can affect the distribution and abundance of plants in a variety of different ways,
NAME 4
- 1. significant reductions in density
- 2. altering growth forms
- 3. reductions in biomass
- 4. changes in interspecific competition.
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T OR F
Frugivory can be a form of mutualism?
- TRUE.
- ANIMAL DISPERSES THE SEEDS
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NAME 3 DEFENSES THAT PLANT HAVE EVOLVED IN RESPONSE TO HERBIVORES.
- Morphological...THORNS
- Associational...GROW NEAR A THORN BUSH
- Chemical (secondary compounds)...POT OR ALCOHOL IN SEEDS.
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one of the first mathematical models of predator-prey interactions; initially
assumed one predator species and one prey species; based on a set of
differential equations.
Lotka-Volterra predator-prey model
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Lotka-Volterra predator-prey model IS BASED ON WHAT?
change in predator numbers over the change in time in relation to changes in prey density over time.
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UNDERSTAND THE DIFFERENT TYPES:
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CYCLIC CYCLE LIMITS?
2,4,8,16,32,64..
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Temporal scale must always be carefully considered when trying to describe cycles (or any other population dynamics).
WHY?
- ONE MIGHT NOT COVER THE COMPLETE CYCLE OF THE ORGANISM.
- SPRUCE BUDWORM. CAN'T DO A 10 YEAR CHART WHEN IT'S CYCLE IS 25.
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DEFINE Functional and numerical responses
- Numerical response –
- when predator numbers respond to changes in prey numbers, i.e., prey go up,
- predators increase; prey go down, predators decrease.
- Three types of functional responses:
- 1. Type I....ZOOPLANKTON
- 2. Type II....SEEDS...EAT FAST THEN LEVEL OFF
- 3. Type III...SEARCH IMAGE. IF RARE, LESS LIKELY TO EAT. BUT IF COMMON THEN BECOMES AVERAGE.
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DEFINE THE 3 TYPES
- 1. Type I....ZOOPLANKTON
- 2. Type II....SEEDS...EAT FAST THEN LEVEL OFF
- 3. Type III...SEARCH IMAGE. IF RARE, LESS LIKELY TO EAT. BUT IF COMMON THEN BECOMES AVERAGE.
 .
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Ways in which animals try to reduce predation:
- 1. Cryptic coloration
- 2. Aposematic coloration
- 3. Aggressive resemblance
- 4. Mimicry
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DEFINE Mimicry
is the resemblance of one organism to a not very closely related organism living in the same area.
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Two types of mimicry.
- 1. Batesian mimicry – an edible mimic resembles a distasteful or poisonous model. e.g., viceroy – monarch mimics; fly – bee mimics; king snake – coral snake mimics.
- 2. Mullerian mimicry – when several poisonous or unpalatable species resemble one another.
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2 EXAMPLES OF MULLERIAN MIMICRY.
- FROGS IN TROPICS.
- BEES/WASPS/FLY IN MIDWEST.
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A fly MIMICS A BEE WHAT TYPE IF MIMICRY?
- 1. Batesian mimicry – an edible mimic resembles a distasteful or poisonous model. e.g., viceroy – monarch
- mimics; fly – bee mimics; king snake – coral snake mimics.
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WHO PRACTICES SIBLICIDE?
WHY?
- the killing (and often eating) of ones siblings.
- ARCTIC RAPTERS.
- LAY EGGS AT DIFFERENT TIMES.
- FOOD.
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WHO PRACTICES Infanticide.
- parents killing the young of another individual
- MALE LIONS.
- FEMALE MICE..HELP HELP FOOD SOURCE STRONG.
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WHO PRATICES GENERAL CANNIBALISM?
- NUDEABRINKS.

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DEFINE Ectoparasite.
Ectoparasite – parasites that live on their hosts, e.g., fleas and ticks.
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DEFINE Endoparasite
Endoparasite – parasites that live in their hosts, e.g., viruses, blood flukes, and some tapeworms.
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DEFINE Microparasite
Microparasite – comparatively small parasites that generally multiply within their host, e.g., viruses, bacteria, and fungi
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DEFINE Macroparasite
- Macroparasite – comparatively large parasites that generally do not multiply within the host; produce eggs or larvae that pass out of the host; e.g.,
- parasitic worms and arthropods.
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DEFINE Parasitoids
Parasitoids – flies or wasps that live as parasites within the egg, larvae, or pupa of another insect, consuming its tissues; eventually they emerge and the host dies.
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EXAMPLE OF PRARSITOIDS
PARASITIC WASP INJECTS FLY WITH EGGS.
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T OR F?
Animals have been referred to as "plant parasites."
TRUE
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WHO IS A HOST/CARRIER OF RIVER BLINDNESS?
RIVER FLY
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SAND FLY SPREAD WHAT?
LIECHMANS TYPE OF DISEASE.
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NAME THE 2 HOSTS OF SWIMMERS ICH
SNAIL AND DUCK.
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WHAT TRASMITTED THE PLAGUE?
TICKS.
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RESULTS OF TSETSE FLY BIT.
TRYPANAZOMA.
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T OR F ?
Pathogens and parasites can not only
limit population size, but also alter the outcome of interspecific competition
and affect the distribution of species.
TRUE
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DEFINE Commensalism
where individuals of one species, the commensal, live off of another species, the host; the commensal benefits and the host suffers no negative or positive effects; e.g., epiphytic plants.
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DEFINE Phoresy
the transport of one animal by another.
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DEFINE Saprobism
organisms that obtain their energy from dead or dying tissue.
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EXAMPLE OF A SAPROBIAN
- Saprobism – organisms that obtain their energy from dead or dying tissue.
- vultures, condors, some hyenas, blow-flies, burying beetles, dermestid beetles, stinkhorn mushrooms.
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3 EXAMPLES OF SAPROBISM
- 1. CARRION.
- 2. DUNG.
- 3. DEAD WOODY MATERIAL
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T OR F?
Resources may never or only rarely be in short supply.
Consequently, competition is of relatively little importance.
TRUE.
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Many, possibly most, resources are
used by more than one species. This can result in several possible outcomes.
NAME THE 4 MAJOR OUTCOMES
- 1. Resources may never or only rarely be in short supply. Consequently, competition is of relatively little importance.
- 2. Competition between two species may be mild enough that they can coexist.
- 3. Ghost of competition past: Competition may not be observed between two species, although sometime in the evolutionary past members of the two species were in competition.
- 4. Competition may result in competitive exclusion.
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WHEN RESOURCES ARE USED BY MORE THAN ONE SPECIES, MANY OUTCOMES.
1. RESOURCES MAY NEVER ON RARELY BE IN SHORT SUPPLY.
EXPLAIN 4 POINT IF THIS.
- A. The resource may nondepletable, rapidly renewable, or nonmonopolizable.
- B. Predators or parasites may depress prey to a level in which interspecific competition does not occur.
- C. Annual variability in seasons prevents populations from reaching carrying capacity.
- D. Disturbances, such as fires, floods, and ice-storms, prevent populations from reaching carrying capacity.
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GIVE EXAMPLE OF APPARENT COMPETITION
- CARABO (MAINE) COMPETITOR WITH DEER.
- CARABO DEAD, NOT DEER.
- PARASITE. BUT LOOKED LIKE DEER.
- ANOTHER
- LYNX, RABBIT AND HAIRS OF NOVA SCOTIA.
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DEFINE interspecific
arising or occurring between species; "an interspecific hybrid".
-
DEFINE intraspecific competition
:occurring within a species or involving members of one species
-
T OR F ?
two competing species will be able to coexist if the effects of crowding are more severe intraspecifically than interspecifically.
TRUE
-
T OR F ?
Refugia can result in coexistence.
TRUE.
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DEFINE relict
an organism that at an earlier time was abundant in a large area but now occurs at only one or a few small areas
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DEFINE RUFUGIA
An area that has escaped ecological changes occurring elsewhere and so provides a suitable habitat for relict species.
-
T OR F?
Directional selection can also help reduce interspecific competition.
- TRUE
- THINK GHOST COMPETITION.
-
IS MOST COMPETITION ASYMMETRICAL?
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If the birth rate or death rate were to change as a population got bigger (or smaller), then they would be said to be density WHAT?
dependent.
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DEFINE Amensalism
a coaction in which one species is harmed and the other is unaffected.
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DEFINE Allelopathy
- Chemical inhibition of one organism by another. Generally used in reference to higher plants.
- TREES. WALNUTS. MARIGOLD.
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DEFINE Neutralism.
- when two species have negligible effects on each other on an ecological time scale. Neutralism may evolve from competition.
- GHOST COMPETITION.
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DEFINE Mutualism.
the coaction which both species benefit.
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EXAMPLE OF SYMBIOTIC MUTALISM
Lichens(algae and fungi) and herbivore / digestive microorganisms.
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WHAT IS A Mycorrhizae.
NAME THE 2 TYPES.
- fungi that are found in close association with the roots of vascular plants.
- Endomycorrhizae enter the cell.
- Ectomycorrhizae go between the cells.
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EXAMPLE OF MUTUALISM
KUDO AND BIRD IN AFRICA.
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EXAMPLE OF Nonsymbiotic mutualism.
seed dispersal and pollination
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