Human Geography

A settlement in which certain products and services are available to consumers

A theory that seeks to explain the relative size and spacing of towns and cities as a function of people's shopping behavior

The functional dominance of cities within an urban system

A city that was deliberately established or developed as an administrative or commercial center by colonial or imperial powers

The net loss of population from cities to smaller towns and rural areas

Serves as a link between one country or region and others because of its physical situation

Economic activities that take place beyond official record, not subject to formalized systems of regulation or remuneration

Very large city characterized by both primacy and high centrality within its national economy

Condition in which cities grow more rapidly than the jobs and housing they can sustain

Condition in which the population of the largest city in an urban system is disproportionately large in relation to the second and third largest cities

Statistical regularity in size distributions of cities and regions

Growth of population in metropolitan central cores, following a period of absolute or relative decline in population

City that is seen as the embodiment of surprising and disturbing changes in economic, social, and cultural life

Fragmentation of the economic, social, and material fabric of cities as a result of the selective impact of new technologies and networked information and communications infrastructures

Residential developments that occur on land that is neither owned nor rented by its occupants

Social and demographic composition of city districts and neighborhoods

Physical structure and organization of cities

• Interdependent set of urban settlements within a specified region
• Cities play different roles in this
• Different forms of political and economic organization favor different sites and roles for cities

Way of life, attitudes, values, and patterns of behavior fostered by urban settings

City in which a disproportionate part of the world's most important business is conducted

A style of urban design that sought to combine the best elements of all of the classic architectural styles

The central nucleus of commercial land uses in a city

The original, core jurisdictions of metropolitan areas

The territorial and residential clustering of specific groups or subgroups of people

The transmission of poverty and deprivation from one generation to another through a combination of domestic circumstances and local, neighborhood conditions

A physical setting that allows residents to identify with, survey, and exert a degree of social control over public space

The juxtaposition in geographic space of the formal and informal sectors of the economy

Nodal concentrations of shopping and office space situated on the outer fringes of metropolitan areas, typically near major highway intersections

Increasing limitations on city revenues, combined with increasing demands for expenditure

Invasion of older, centrally-located, working-class neighborhoods by higher-income households seeking the character and convenience of less expensive and well-located residences

Process of neighborhood change whereby one social or ethnic group succeeds another

Hypothetical, uniform plain that is flat and has no variations in its physical attributes

Population subgroups that are seen-or that see themselves- as somehow different from the general population

Architectural movement based on the idea that buildings and cities should be designed and run like machines

Practice whereby lending institutions delimit "bad-risk" neighborhoods on a city map and then use the map as the basis for determining loans

Spatil seperation of specific population subgroups within a wider population

Specific combination of demographic groups, social classes, cultural values, and local institutions at a particular time and place

Subset of the poor, isolated from mainstream values and the formal labor market

Situation in which people work less than full time even though they would prefer to work more hours

Area of mixed commercial and residential land uses surrounding the CBD

A technology with the potential to cause a significant change in key aspects of national military power, economic development, or social organization

Referring to the culture of agricultural communities and the type of tenure system that determines access to land and the kind of cultivation practices employed there

A science, art, and business directed at the cultivation of crops and the raising of livestock for sustenance and profit

Activities whereby people feed themselves through killing wild animals and fish and gathering fruits, roots, nuts, and other edible plants to sustain themselves

• Farming for direct consumption by the producers; not for sale
• 3 Practices

Farming primarily for sale, not direct consumption

System in which farmers aim to maintain soil fertility by rotating the fields within which cultivation occurs

Method of maintaining soil fertility in which the fields under cultivation remain the same but the crop being planted is changed

System of cultivation in which plants are cropped close to the ground, left to dry for a period and then ignited

Land that is cleared using the slash-and-burn process and is ready for cultivation

Practice of mixing different seeds and seedlings in the same swidden

Practice that involves the effective and efficient use, usually through a considerable expenditure of human labor and application of fertilizer of a small parcel of land in order to maximize crop yield

Subsistence activity that involves the breeding and herding of animals to satisfy the human needs of food, shelter, and clothing

Practice used in the milder climates, where intensive subsistence fields are planted and harvested more than once a year

Movement of herds according to seasonal rhythms: warmer, lowland areas in the winter; cooler, highland areas in the summer

Becoming an increasingly important aspect of the contemporary agro-food system, whether the products are purchased by multinationals, smaller companies, government agencies, farmer cooperatives, or individual entrepreneurs

Replacement of human farm labor with machines

Application of synthetic fertilizers to the soil and herbicides, fungicides, and pesticides to crops in order to enhance yields

Adding value to agricultural products through a range of treatments such as processing, canning, refining, packing, and packaging; that occur off the farm and before the products reach the market

Process whereby the farm has moved from being the centerpiece of agricultural production to become one part of an integrated string of vertically organized industrial processes including production, storage, processing, distribution, marketing, and retailing

The introduction of new production techniques, processing technology, infrastructure, and larger, motorized boats, as well as the application of transgenics into peripheral country fisheries

The cultivation of fish and shellfish under controlled conditions, usually in coastal lagoons

Export of a technological package of fertilizers and high-yielding seeds, from the core to the periphery, to increase global agricultural productivity

New export crops that contrast with traditional exports

The genetic engineering of plants and animals with the potential to exceed the productivity of the Green Revolution

Technique that uses living organisms or parts of organisms to make or modify products, to improve plants and animals, or to develop microorganisms for specific uses

An application of biotechnology in which genes from other life forms (plants, animal, fungal, bacterial, or human) are inserted into a host plant

Because global food demand is on the rise, restricting crop usage to traditional low-yield methods (such as organic farming) would require either the world population to decrease or the further conversion of forest land into cropland

System of food production increasingly dependent upon an economy and set of regulatory practices that are global in scope and organization

A set of economic and political relationships that organizes agro-food production from the development of seeds to the retailing and consumption of the agricultural product

Five central and connected sectors (inputs, production, product processing, distribution, and consumption) with four contextual elements acting as external mediating forces (the state, international trade, the physical environment, and credit and finance)

Specific set of links that exists among food production and consumption and capital investment and accumulation opportunities

Farming or animal husbandry done without commercial fertilizers, synthetic pesticides, or growth hormones

Approach that uses chemicals in the form of plant protectants and fertilizers, or intensive, hormone-based practices in breeding and raising animals

Food that is organically grown and produced within a fairly limited distance from where it is consumed

Attempt to resist fast food by preserving the cultural cuisine and the associated food and farming of an ecoregion

Edibles that can be prepared and served very quickly, sold in a restaurant and served to customers in packaged form

Inadequate intake of one or more nutrients and/or calories

Acute starvation associated with a sharp increase in mortality

Assured access by a person, household, or even a country to enough food at all times to ensure active and healthy lives

Right of peoples, communities, and countries to define their own agricultural, labor, fishing, food, and land policies that are ecologically, socially, economically, and culturally appropriate to their unique circumstances

Renewable fuels derived from biological materials that can be regenerated

Any organism that has had its DNA modified in a laboratory than through cross-pollination or other forms of evolution

Establishment or performance of agricultural practices in or near an urban or citylike setting

State’s power to control space or territory and shape the foreign policy of individual states and international political relations.

Deliberate use of microorganisms or toxins from living organisms to induce death or disease

Forces that divide or tend to pull the state apart

Forces that strengthen and unify the state

The fundamental right of children to life, liberty, education, and health care codified by the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child in 1989

A category of belonging to a nation-state that includes civil, political, and social rights

A group of states united for a common purpose

The acquisition, by colonized peoples, of control over their own territory

Institutionalized ways of constituting knowledge

A system in which public policies and officials are directly chosen by popular vote

The theory that if one country in a region chooses or is forced to accept a communist political and economic system, then neighboring countries would be irresistibly susceptible to communism

Communist and noncommunist countries, respectively

Form of government in which power is allocated to units of local government within the country

Practice of redistricting for partisan purposes

Set of institutions, organizations, and behaviors situated between the state, business world, and family including voluntary and non-profit organizations, philanthropic institutions, and social and political movements

People’s individual rights to justice, freedom, and equality, considered by most societies to belong automatically to all people

Group that includes two or more states seeking political and/or economic cooperation with each other

Orientation of contemporary politics around the international arena instead of the national

Uprising against Israel by the Palestinian people

• Group of people often sharing common elements of culture, such as religion or language or a history or political identity
• Zulus, Cherokee Indians, Palestinians, Navajos
• Tribes, not all nations are tribes though

• Ideal form consisting of a homogeneous group of people governed by their own state
• Israel is trying to become one, Vatican City, Japan, Korea, Denmark, Iceland

Feeling of belonging to a nation as well as the belief that a nation has a natural right to determine its own affairs

Triumph of capitalism over communism, wherein the United States becomes the world’s only superpower and therefore its policing force

Differentiation made between the colonizing states of the Northern Hemisphere and the formerly colonized states of the Southern Hemisphere

Discourse that positions the West as culturally superior to the East

Process of allocation electoral seats to geographical areas

Defining and redefining of territorial district boundaries

Feeling of collective identity based on a population’s politico-territorial identification within a state or across state boundaries

Extreme devotion to local interests and customs

Right of a group with a distinctive politico-territorial identity to determine its own destiny, at least in part, through the control of its own territory

• Exercise of state power over people and territory, recognized by other states and codified by international law
• Exercise self-determination to achieve this

Collections of individual states with a common goal that may be economic and/or political in nature

System of government formally structured by area, not by social groups

Delimited area over which a state exercises control and which is recognized by other states

Threat or use of force to bring about political change

Form of government in which power is concentrated in the central government

Movement for the establishment of a legally recognized home in Palestine for the Jewish people

• Between 9000 and 7000 B.C.
• Early Stone Age domestication of seeds and animals enabled settlement
• Spurred many social changes

Fertile Crescent, Ganges, Yuan, Mesoamerica

• Higher population densities in settlements
• More hierarchical social organization
• Specialization in nonagricultural crafts
• Spurred barter and trade
• Hydraulic societies

• Shifting cultivation
• Intensive agriculture
• Pastoralism

• Local, small-scale production
• Labor requires high proportion of population
• Distribution and consumption through social as well as market relationships
• Limited choices for consumers - seasonal and local availability
• Lack of sharp differences in beliefs about food practices

• Commodified surplus production on larger scale Industrial Revolution
• Labor-saving innovations - yokes, horses, plows
• New inputs – fertilizers, drainage systems
• Dramatic improvements in outputs

• Value of production determined by market price, not nutritional value
• Value of agricultural labor measured by profit
• Geographical specialization of agriculture according to profitability

Enabled by developments in transportation and preservation

• Emanating from “New World” in 20th c.
• Differs from 2nd Ag. Rev. in degree
• Mechanization: Replacement of human and animal labor with machines
• Chemical farming: Application of inorganic fertilizers, herbicides, fungicides and pesticides to enhance crop yields
• Food manufacturing: Adding value with processing and packaging off-farm and before market

• One firm owns all stages of production
• Want to be able to "control their destiny"

• Increased market share in given niche
• Go to company for something

One company becomes involved in many different products

Cost advantages from high-volume production

Created a world where food shapes industrialization

Takes a ton of money to produce food

• Package of Inputs: miracle seeds, fertilizers and pesticides and water
• Crops can yield 2-5x traditional crops
• Not an unqualified success
• Agricultural science and biotechnology
• Alleviate hunger in periphery
• Increasing crop yields

• Used as package= 2X - 5X higher yields of crop
• World grain output increased 90% in 1960s 70% in 1970s 80% in 1980s 80% in 1990s
• Yields in some countries high enough to foster foreign trade

• High- yield seeds limits to nitrogen absorption
• Nitrogen-based fertilizers in water
• Required building major irrigation infrastructure increased nitrogen and water led to tall stalks that could not support heavy seed heads of high yield plant
• Dwarf varieties of high yield seeds
• -Moist conditions led to growth of pests and disease Pesticides

• Miracle rice developed at International Rice Research Institute
• In the 70s they were the main net exporter
• In the 80s Annual growth in rice production slowed from 4.6% to 0.9%

• Tropical storms
• Droughts
• Economic downturn and crisis
• Crop loans less available
• Cost of inputs increased
• Rice prices declined
• Farmers squeezed
• Hectarage decreased
• Importation required

• Industrialization of food production in periphery, but lacked industrial infrastructure
• Reinforced dependency on imported goods and technology
• Did not produce backwards linkages on capital goods producing sector in periphery they way it did in the core

• Little progress in Africa, where hunger is very severe
• Costs of inputs leads to growing more crops for export, fewer for consumption – local nutritional needs still not met
• Intended as social equalizer, effects have been to further stratify societies –wealth, debt, landlessness, increase in urban poor

• Genetically engineered varieties often lack resistance to local pests
• Invented varieties often less nutritious
• Fertilizers derived from fossil fuels – system vulnerable to fluctuations in world oil market
• Environmental degradation from chemical inputs and intensive mono-culture

Urban Geographers Study

• Influenced by European concerns with effects of city on social life
• Searched for positive impact on life in cities
• -Gemeinschaft vs Gesellschaft
• -Progressive Era commitment to reform
• Used empirical (ethnographic) research
• Urban ecology – people behave like plants
• -Competition among groups over resources (plants:sunlight)
• -Invasion and succession

• When homeowners move, home becomes vacant
• New occupants generally younger w/ fewer resources

• City: Impact of each new UMC house at outskirts filters through chain
• Hhlds: Hhlds filter up through housing market (usually up and out)
• Housing: 1930s low-income immigrants occupying once-fashionable houses

• Initial Urbanization
• Transition
• Downgrading
• Thinning
• Renewal

Typically occurs on the fringe of the city

Population growth continues, density increases, and multi-family housing begins to being built

Older housing stock is converted to multifamily use, densities continue to increase, and the housing stock physically deteriorates

Population decines, household size shrinks, housing units become vacant and are abandoned

• Obsolete housing is replaced with multifamily buildings, and the intensity and efficiency of land use increase
• Thought to often require public-sector involvement

• 1870 (13,066)
• 1884 (106,739)
• Scandinavian
• Irish
• German
• RRs
• Mills
• Manufactories

• Economic development
• Cultural innovation
• Social transformation
• Political power

• Rural system of feudal kingdoms & estates
• Towns:
• Ecclesiastical / University
• Administrative Defensive

• Money economy
• Long-distance trade in luxury goods
• Spices, furs, silks, fruit, wine
• Favored locations: Ports Trade Routes Transshipment Nodes

• Trading partners Hanseatic League
• Trading networks Venice, Pisa, Genoa, Florence 1400
• Long-distance trade in bulk staples
• Grains, wine, salt, wool, cloth
• Paris pop. 275,000

• Port cities of North Sea & Atlantic Coast
• London, Lisbon, Amsterdam

• Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paolo Buenos Aires
• Gateways to interior markets for European manufactures

• Urban system and cities differentiated by new functions
• Pre-existing trade cities: London, Amsterdam
• New ports: Liverpool
• New production centers- new form of city
• Manchester and surrounding towns
• Near coal fields
• New production system evolved linking city to rural nodes – putting out -> FACTORIES ->
• METROPOLITAN PRODUCTION COMPLEX
• cotton cloth

• Processes of Industrialization and Urbanization
• Increase in agricultural productivity
• Demographic changes – rapid urbanization
• New modes of production
• New power technology
• New modes of transportation
• Implications for Urban System
• Implications for Internal Spatial Form

• Seed selection & animal breeding
• Fertilizers
• Enclosure Acts

• Increase in population supported by ag
• % Rural population becomes redundant
• Many settle in cities where new forms of work are available

Rapid urbanization provides labor supply for emerging factories

• Specialization in labor process
• Technological advances made it economical to produce in larger, single site factories produce standardized high volume goods
• MASS PRODUCTION
• Textiles – flying shuttle 2X hand output (1733) spinning Jenny 8X hand output (1764) spinning mule 120X hand output (1779) weaving machines

• 1712 steam engine first applied to machinery
• Steam-powered weaving machines revolutionized production process
• Coal as fuel source increased efficiency
• England had lots of coal
• Heavy and bulky
• Expensive to transport

• Canals & roads
• Faster ships – cutters
• Railroads
• Steamships

• Factories
• Railroads
• Housing

• At center of new cities
• Tall- compact in form
• Dirty

• Through center of city to service factories
• Sometimes elevated

• Culmination of separation of home and workplace
• Cheap – poor quality construction
• Crowded beyond belief
• Near factories
• Dark
• Dirty

• Pre-existing town – - chester means
• Fort Mancurian
• Medieval church town
• Limited (artisanal) production and trade in wool, flax, linen
• With expansion of British Empire, vast amounts of (new) raw materials
• Cotton sourced from India, Egypt, America, China, Japan

• Production technology
• Power sources

• Brutal working and living conditions
• No water, no services, no privacy
• 12 shared one bed
• 100 houses shared one privy (hole) or midden (pile) No clean drinking water
• Houses were always damp & could fill with sewage Life expectancy for males in these conditions 17 yrs 2/3 of workers in mills were children ages 6-10
• Wages below subsistence

• Social Reform movements
• Legislation
• Housing
• Work
• Health

• Ended 30 Year war b/t Protestants and Catholics Reduced power of Holy Roman Empire Strengthened emerging States
• Made the territorial state rather than monarch the basis of political system Consolidated many small states

• Maps are key tool in state-making
• Biggs (1999:374)
• “In its spatial form, the modern state is qualitatively different from the medieval realm, a difference that owes something to the techniques of knowing and representing space originating in the Renaissance”

• Created new forms of knowledge
• Represented new forms of political space – clearly bounded and internally homogeneous
• Symbolized political authority as territory (rather than as ruler)

• 17th – 18th c. Institutionalization of surveying and mapmaking
• Ordnance Survey of England
• Origins in 1747 mapping of Scottish Highlands in aftermath of Jacobite uprising. Used to facilitate future military maneuvers against clans

Series of large scale maps

Biggs (1999:385) “Maneuvering armies, assessing taxes, and planning roads could be undertaken more effectively with detailed and accurate maps... As lands were surveyed and mapped, they were reshaped into a territory: a homogeneous and uniform space, demarcated by linear boundaries”

“As rulers began mapping their lands, they did much more than multiply the quantity of geographic knowledge. The map represents an area as a demarcated space located in relation to an imaginary grid, without reference to tradition or relationships”

The cartographic image of the state did not imply that it was coterminous with a nation. While every nationalism has its hearthland, the map is less suited to conveying the relationship between people and soil. The map rationally represents quantities of distance, not the quality of myth; compare the emotionally freighted symbol of the nation, the flag”

• Mountainous
• Linguistic refuge area
• Britons retreated from Angles and Saxons
• Welsh is an older language than
• English
• Llyfrgell Genedlaethol Cymru
• National Library of Wales

• Part of multi-national state of Great Britain
• 2+ ethnic groups with traditions of self-determination that co- exist by recognizing each other as distinct nationalities
• GB: England, Wales, Scotland
• UK: England, Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland

• Conquered by England 1282, politically united 1536
• A local government unit within GB, UK
• Little independent political power
• Antipathy between English and Welsh (uneven)

• Relationships between groups of people and pieces of territory
• Politics and cultural practices which strengthen or weaken such relationships
• States and the relationships between them: Geopolitics

• Independent political unit with boundaries internationally recognized by other states
• Can’t become one unless internationals consider you one
• A set of institutions that make rules that govern life within its territory
• United States and Israel

• Boundaries uncertain and subject to change political control exercised by few people clear social hierarchy
• Does not equal a modern state

Concentrated power in a monarchy

• Independent political unit with internationally recognized boundaries
• Individual identification with state is with territory and institutions rather than leader per se
• Political Form

British forces occupied Egypt, at the time an autonomous vassal state of the Ottoman Empire (the Sick Man of Europe), ostensibly to help Ottomans put down an uprising

Ottomans sided with Germany (Central Powers) in WW I Great Britain annexed Egypt, Sudan and Cyprus in response

The fact that a political unit (state) exists does not meant that its boundaries delimit a nation identity

• Originated turn of 20th c. with Jurji Zaydan and Nahda (Revival) movement
• Pressed as a political agenda by Sharif Hussein ibn Ali, the Sharif of Mecca

Influenced acceptance of a modern Arabic (Quranic language) as the lingua franca of the Arab world, superceding local dialects

Sought independence from the Ottoman Empire for the Mashreq Arabs, and the establishment of a unified Arab state in the Mashreq

Led to agreement between the UK and the Sharif that if the Mashreq Arabs revolted successfully against the Ottomans

Sharif help up his end of the bargain, and organized the Arab Revolt against the Ottomans

Between the UK and France determined that parts of the Mashreq would be divided between those powers rather than forming part of an independent Arab state

• UK and France took over Iraq, Lebanon, Palestine, Syria, and Transjordan as protectorates, failing to respect agreement with Sharif of Mecca
• Sharif became King of Hijaz which was later absorbed

• The Sykes-Picot Agreement also designated Palestine an international zone
• Homeland for Judaism, Christianity, and Islam

Leveraged Jewish pressure for US to enter the war, by supporting a Jewish homeland in Palestine

• Surprised and angered Britain’s Arabs allies “critical misunderstanding” – Palestine an Arab state
• British appear to have been making more promises than they could reasonably keep

Anti-Semitism in Europe spurs birth of Zionism

Theodore Hertzl “Der Judenstaat”

• World Zionist Congress calls for a Jewish “national home” in Palestine, to be supported politically and financially by a worldwide organization.
• Zionists settle dozens of colonies over next decade

• Population in Palestine numbered:
• 500,000 Muslim Arabs
• 100,000 Christian Arabs
• 60,000 Jews

Regional organization made up of geographically adjacent countries where the people speak the same language, share the same culture, and where the majority are Muslims. (Currently 22 members)

6 Founding Members of League of Arab States

• Egypt 1922
• Mahgreb Libya 1951
• Tunisa 1956
• Morocco 1956
• Mauritania 1960
• Algeria 1962

• After 8 years of war
• French evacuate
• Strong Islamic orientation to politics

• Treaty-based supranational framework
• Started as economic union moving toward political union
• Process of integration begun in 1950s

6 Apart of European Union

Pool production under common authority to “control forces of war”

Merge national markets (over time) into a single market that would ensure the free movement of goods, people, capital and services

Further the use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes

• ECSC
• EEC
• EAEC

• European community
• Common foreign and security policy
• Justice and home affairs

• Treaty of Rome as revised by Single European Act
• Single market
• Democratization of the institutions
• European citizenship
• Economic and monetary union:
• Single currency
• European Central Bank
• Single monetary policy
• Coordination of economic policies

• Systematic cooperation
• Common positions and joint action
• Eventual common defense policy based on the Western European Union

• Closer Cooperation
• Asylum policy
• Rules on crossing the Member States' external borders
• Immigration policy
• Combating drug addiction
• Combating international fraud
• Customs, police, and judicial cooperation

• Foreign trade
• Agriculture
• Competition
• Transport
• Environment
• Development

• Largest trade partner in the world (20% of all exports)
• Largest single market

• Value Added Tax (VAT)
• GNP-based contributions by member states + customs duties on industrial products levies on agricultural imports
• Structural Fund Wealth redistribution between countries

• Ultra Liberal
• European Model

• EU as a free-trade area
• Restrict role of European institutions to policing the Single Market

• Moderate pursuit of economic growth with concerns for social welfare and equity, sustainability and good governance
• Strengthen European institutions to fulfill functions otherwise reserved to those of nation states

• Formal EU policy rejected as unwanted intrusion in sovereign affairs
• Some cities lobby for more direct contact with Brussels

• EU policies have implications for cities
• EU policies contain an implicit urban agenda
• Cities are engines of economic growth and urban policy can be key to success of EU policies

• Globalization
• Formation of continental trading blocs
• Transformation of Eastern Europe
• Shift to informational economy
• Transportation technologies
• Information technologies
• Urban boosterism
• Demographic and social change
• European enlargement

Contours can be discerned in present conditions and history from which they derived Grounded geographical analysis lands somewhere between optimistic and pessimistic scenarios

• Triggered by fall of Iron Curtain 1989
• Rendered more complex by geopolitical and cultural repercussions of 9/11 attacks
• And by Financial meltdown of 2008 ff.
• Unexpected developments and unsettling juxtapositions

• World’s sole superpower Declining hegemon
• Economic dominance no longer unquestioned

• Largest internal market and largest exporting power
• Challenge US hegemony or become partner among superpowers?

• Greatest benefits of globalization will accrue to economies that can best adapt new technologies
• Rise to economic power could transform geopolitics

• Effects of contestation and innovation in these sectors will be felt at global, national, regional and urban scales
• Globalization Cultural dissonance Security
• Sustainability
• Climate change
• Peak Oil
• Water

• Energy storage
• Biofuels and bio-based chemicals
• Clean coal
• Biogerontology
• Service robotics
• An Internet of Things