-
_________ shape of both the enzyme and substrate are altered upon binding.
induced fit
-
quaternary structure
When 2 or more polypeptide chains bind together. Same 5 forces in the tertiary structure can also act to form the quaternary structures
-
Krebs cycle products
1 glucose = 2 turns
each turn = 1 ATP, 3 NADH, 1 FADH2
-
_______ solvent in w/c the chemical rxns of living cells take paces. 70-80% of a cell's mass is due to this. Small polar molecult
Water
-
They are called ___ because the amine is attached to the carbon in the alpha position of the carbonyl approx______ of them
alpha- AA
20
-
In typical DNA, two strands are joined by hydrogen bonds to make the structure called a _______
double helix
-
______ any biological molecule that has low solubility in water and high solubiility in nonpolar organic solvents
lipid
-
The proton-motive force propels thru______ to manufacture ATP.
ATp syntase
-
________ dissolved inorganic ions inside and outside the cell.
-create electrochemical gradients.
-Combine and solidify to give strength to a matrix such as hydroxyapatite in bone
- cofactors, assisting enzyme or protein function
Minerals
-
_______-intermolecular bond allows water to be a liquid at typical cell temps strong cohesive forces between water molecules
Hydrogen bond
-
Denaturing agent and forces disrupted-
- Urea- hydrogen bonds
- salt or change in pH- electrostatic bonds
- mercaptoethanol- disulfide bonds
- Organic solvents- hydrophobic forces
- heat- all forces
-
______ agents which bind covalently to enzymes and disrupt their function. (usually high toxic, penicillin in an example.
irreversible inhibitors
-
made from carbon and water, empirical formula C(H2O)
Carbohydrates or sugars or saccharides
-
_______ feedback inhibitors bind to the enzyme and cause a conformational change. both _______ inhibitor and ______ activator.
Allosteric regulation.
-
Combustion reaction
- not balanced :
- glucose + O2 ---> CO2 + H2O
-
Plants form ____ from glucose
Cellulose has ______ linkages.
Cows and termites etc have bacteria in their digestive system that release an enzyme to digest the ____ linkages
Starch
Beta
beta
-
_____ a coenzyme which transfers 2 carbons (from pyruvate) to the 4- carbon oxaloacetic acid to begin the krebs cycle/also called the citric acid cycle.
acetly-coa
-
____ increases the rate of diffusion for glucose and other monosaccharides
insulin
-
_______ fluid portion of living cells
Cytosol
-
nucleotides
- composed of 3 components:
- 1. a 5 carbon sugar
- 2. a nitrogenous base
- 3. a phosphate group
-
_____ this chemical is an enzyme and therefore probably a protein and therefore contains nitrogen and is subject to denaturation
-ase
-
other important nucleotides
ATP- source of readily available energy for the cell
Cyclic amp- important component in many 2nd messenger systems
NADH & FADH2- the coenzymes involved in kerbs cycle.
-
_______ anaerobic respiration, includes the process of glycolysis the reduction of pyruvate to ethanol or lactic acid, the oxidation of the NADH back to the NAD+
recycles NADH back to NAD+
Fermentation
-
______if one of the products downstream in a reaction series comes back and inhibits the enzymatic activity in an earlier rxn.
If it works it shuts off, like a thermostat
negative feedback or feedback inhibition
-
nucleic acids
- DNA and RNA
- formed from the nucleotides
-
Hydrophobic
water fearing nonpolar
-
_____ non consumes or permanently altered by the reaction, only a small amount required. do not alter the _____ of a reaction.
Catalyst (enzyme) equilibrium
-
Hydrophilic
water loving polar like dissolves like
-
______only 1 strand and no helix is formed and uracil replaced thymine
RNA
-
______the position on the enzyme to where the substrate binds, usually with numerous non-covalent bonds.
active site
-
_____are built from a chain of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds.
proteins (polypeptides)
-
________ a lipid. building blocks for most, but not all complex lipids. long chain of carbons truncated at one end by a carboxylic acid. Usually an even # of crbons with the max in humans being 24
fatty acids
-
glycerol
3 carbon backbone
-
_____ glycerol backbone, with 2 fatty acids and a polar phosphate group with lies on opposite end of the nonpolar fatty acids.
phospholipid
-
______organic molecule many are vitamins or their derivatives.
coenzymes
-
krebs cycle or citric acid cycle
- each turn of the krbs cycle produces: 1 ATP, 3 NADH, and 1 FADH2.
- During the cycle 2 carbons are lost and CO2 and oxaloacetic acid is reproduced to begin the cycle over again.
-
essential amino acids
(10) amino acids that the body can't manufacture, must be ingested
-
______ production of ATP by the proton motive force thru ATP synthase
Oxidative phosphorylation
-
______polysaccharide, branches glucose polymer with alpha linkages most is found in the liver and muscle cells
glycogen
-
VLDL-
LDL-
HDL-
very low density lipoprotein
low density lipoprotein
high density lipoprotein
-
Respiration-
steps 2 and 3 of metabolism
- W/ oxygen - aerobic
- w/0 oxygen- anaerobic
-
_____bind nonvovalently to an enzyme at a spot other than the active site and change the conformation (shape) of the enzyme. so the substrate does not even fit in the active site anymore
non competitive inhibitors
-
Unsaturated fatty acids
contain one or more C=C.
-
____ typ a globular protein occasionally a nucleic acid, act as a catalyst by lowering the activation energy and increasing the reaction rate ( by magnitudes as much as thousands of trillions)
enzymes
-
_______example of enzyme specificity. Active site of the enzyme has a specific shape that only fits a specific substrate.
lock and key theory
enzyme= lock
substrate= key
-
The enzyme bound to the substrate is called _______
enzyme- substrate complex
-
_______each amino acid in a polypeptide chain
residue
-
Water molecules surround ______ a hyrophilic molecule and separate it form the group
Solvate
-
Lipid functions
Phosopholipids-
triacylglycerols-
fatty acids (eicosanoids)-
steroids-
- structural component of membranes
- store metabolic energy, provide thermal insulation & padding
- serve as local hormones
- regulate metabolic activities
-
amphipathic
- one end is polar
- one end is nonpolar
- eg. phospholipid
-
5 forces creating the tertiary sturcture
- 1. covalent disulfide bonds b/n two cysteine AA on different parts of the chain.
- 2. electrostatic (ioni) interactions mostly b/n acidic and basic side chains.
- 3. hydrogen bonds
- 4. van der waals forces
- 5. hydrophobic side chains pushed away from water (toward center of protein)
-
inactive form of an enzyme, depending, they can reversibly or irreversibly activated
zymogen or proenzyme
-
most macromolecules of living cells are broken apart via_________
hydrolysis
-
________ how most macromolecules are formed
dehyration synthesis
-
_________ the reactant or reactions upon which the enzyme works. Generally _______ than the enzyme
substrates
smaller
-
Aerobic respiration products
approx 36 net ATP
1 NADH bring back 2 to 3 ATP
1 FADH2 bring back aprx 2 ATP
-
denatured (proteins)
lost most of its secondary, tertiary and quaternary structure
often once the denaturing agent is removed the protein will spontaneously refold to its original conformation
-
________ a non-proetin component that many enzymes require. can be coenzymes or metal ions (mineral)
Cofactor
-
______ normally, enzymes are designed to work only on a specific substrate or group of closely related substrates
enzyme specificity
-
__________ the first substrate changes the shape of the enzyme allowing other substrates to bind more easily.
Positive cooperativity, negative cooperativity is the opposite.
-
_____ four ringed structure, includes some hormones, vitamin D and cholesterol
Steroids
-
On MCAT when you see nitrogen
think of protein
-
______ what the single chain can form
_______ are secondary structure
alpha-helix
beta-plated sheet
-
inner mitochondrial membrane
less permeable than the outer.
have to pass thru to get to the mitochondrial matrix
-
________ the process of ATP production in the krebs cycle.
substrate level phosphorylation
-
_______a 6th class of lipids which include vitamin A.
Terpenes
-
In nucleic acids, nucleotides are joined together by _____between the phosphate groups of 1 nucleotide and the 3rd carbon of the pentose of the other nucleotide forming long strands.
phospodiester bonds
-
_______ (substrate has to wait in line on enzymes) As the relative concn. of substrate increases the rate of the reaction also increases but less and less until a max rate (Vmax) is achieved.
Saturation kinetics
-
_____ 6 carbon carbohydrate C6H12O6, very common accounts for 80% of the carbohydrates absorbed by humans
glucose
-
______ 3D shape formed when the peptide chain curls and folds
tertiary structure
-
_____ the products of glycolysis move here past both membranes
matrix of mitochondrion
-
metabolism-
- all cellular chemical reactions.
- consists of anabolism, molecular synthesis and catabolism
-
intermembrane space has______
lower pH than the matrix
-
most common nitrogenous base
-
Rxn rate______ with pH, temp and substrate concn.
- moderates, bell curve shape.
- moderates, bell curve shape but with a slight nudge towards higher temps.
- logarithmic, point at which higher conc= no gains
-
______ the number and sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide
primary structure
-
Aerobic respiration___
requires oxygen
-
Glycolysis
- 2 stages, 6 carbon and 3 carbon stage
- 6 expends 2 ATPs to phosphorylate the molecule
- 3 synthesizes 2 ATP with each 3 carbon molecule (2 net positive)
- 2 pyruvate and 2 NADH molecules left and 2 Net ATP (4 actual)
-
_______ (3 names)
has a 3 carbon backbone called a glycerol, which is attached to 3 fatty acids function is to store energy and may provide thermal insulation and may provide padding
- triglycerides
- or fats and oils
or triacyglycerols
-
side chain (r group)
- how AA typically differ from each other
- this side chain is also attached to the alpha carbon
-
____ compete with the substrate by binding reversibly with noncovalent bonds to the active site. (usually only for a fraction of a second)
competitive inhibitors
-
In the matrix, pyruvate is converted to this _____ in a reaction that produces NADH and CO2
Acetylcoa
-
_______ a series of protein including cytochromes with heme in the inner membrane of the mitochondrion
electron transport chain (ETC)
-
_____ or _____
specialized cells whose cytoplasm contains almost nothing but triglycerides
-
_______ contains a lipid core surrounded by phospholipids and apoproteins can dissolves lipids in its hydrophobic core and move freely in aqueous solution due to its hydrophilic shell
lipoproteins
-
_______ is the modification of the enzyme configuration resulting from the binding of an activator or inhibitor at a specific binding site on the enzyme
allosteric interaction
-
Glycolysis
- 1st stage of anaerobic and aerobic respiration,
- breaks down glucose into 2 3-carbon molecules of pyruvate (conj. base of pyruvic acid)
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