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Social behavior
behavior that takes place in a social context and results from interaction between individuals
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Social psychology
study of social behavior
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Hypotheses
tentative predictions or explanations for an observation or phenomenon that can be empirically tested
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Internal validity
the extent to which an association between an independent variable and a dependent variable reflects a causal relationship between the two
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External validity
the extent to which the results of research can be applied to circumstances outside the specific setting in which the research was conducted
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Demand characteristics
environmental cues that make participants aware of what the experimenter expects to find or how participants are expected to behave
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Experimenter effects
subtle cues or signals that are given out by an experimenter who knows the experimental hypothesis
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Archival research
the reanalysis and interpretation of information collected by others for a different purpose
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Self
fundamental part of every human, a symbolic construct which reflects our consciousness of our own identity
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Self-awareness
- psychological state in which people are aware of their traits, feelings and behavior
- realizations of oneself as an individual entity
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Anterior cingulate
are of the frontal lobe in the cerebral cortex responsible for monitoring/controlling intentional behavior
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Private self-awareness
when an individual temporarily becomes aware of private, personal aspects of the self
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Intensified emotional response
when reflecting on one's feelings intensifies them with private self-awareness
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Clarification of knowledge
more accurate self-knowledge with private self-awareness
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Adhere to personal standards of behavior
more aware of true beliefs and acting in line with them with private self-awareness
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Public self-awareness
when a person is aware of public aspects of themselves that can be seen and evaluated by others
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Evaluation apprehension
concern about being evaluated by others in public self-awareness
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Loss of self-esteem
if a person's actual public image does not match their desired public image, public self-awareness can lead to this
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Adherence to social standards of behavior
more likely to conform to group norms even if it goes against their normal attitudes in public self-awareness
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Self-consciousness
chronic self-awareness
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Private self-consciousness
experience more intense emotions, more likely to remain true to personal beliefs, and have more accurate self-perceptions
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Public self-consciousness
more likely to adhere to group norms, avoid embarrassing situations, concerned with own physical appearance, and likely to judge others based on their physical appearances
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Schemas
cognitive structures that represent the knowledge we have about a particular concept or type of stimulus
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Self-schematic
we are self-schematic on a particular self-schema if it is highly embedded in our self-concept; this is likely to be the case for a self-schema that we are extreme on, that is particularly important to us, and for which we are certain that the opposite is not true
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Self-aschematic
occurs on a dimension if it is not important to you and does not reflect who you are
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Control theory of self-regulation
theory proposing that we use our self-awareness to assess whether or not we are meeting our goals and, if not, make efforts to improve the self in line with these goals
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Test phase of control theory of self-regulation
compare the self against one of two standards; public or private based on type of self-awareness
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Operation phase of control theory of self-regulation
change in behavior in order to meet the chosen standard
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Re-testing phase of control theory of self-regulation
re-compare self against public or private standard
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Exit phase of control theory of self-regulation
if self and standard align with each other, the individual exits the self-regulation loop
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Self-discrepancy theory
according to this theory, we compare the self to two points of reference, the ideal self and the ought self. Discrepancies between actual and ideal self can lead to dejection-related emotions and discrepancies between actual and ought self lead to agitation-related emotions
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Actual self (Higgins)
reflects how we are at present
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Ideal self (Higgins)
point of reference which reflects how we would really like to be
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Ought self (Higgins)
represents the traits or characteristics that an individual believes they should possess, based on a sense of duty, responsibility or obligation
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Social comparison theory
theory that proposes that we form a definition of the self by comparing ourselves with those around us
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Self-evaluation maintenance model
Tesser proposed that comparison with someone who is successful results in self-reflection or social-comparison, depending on whether that success is relevant domain, and on whether we are certain of our own performance in that domain
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Social reflection
associating ourselves with the success of close others
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Upward social comparison
comparing our achievements with the achievements of others who we believe are outperforming us
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Four strategies in the self-evaluation model
- 1. exaggerate the ability of successful target
- 2. change the target of comparison
- 3. distance the self from successful target
- 4. devalue the dimension of comparison
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Individual self - Brewer & Gardner
unique, personal aspects of the self - personality traits and personal preferences
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Relational self - Brewer and Gardner
defined by our relationships with significant others
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Collective self - Brewer and Gardner
aspects of the self that reflect relationships with other individuals and groups - family status
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Social identity theory
theory which proposes that when our membership in a particular group is salient, it is our social self rather than our personal self that guides our self-concept, attitudes and behavior - this explains how affiliation to groups influences behavior
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Personal identity
reflects idiosyncratic aspects of the self, including our personality traits and our close relationships with other individuals
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Social identity
reflects our membership in a particular group, and incorporates the attitudes, behaviors and social norms associated with that group
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Group norms
a collection of shared beliefs about how group members should think and behave
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Self-categorization theory
an extension of social identity theory which proposes that when an individual's social identity is salient they come to see themselves as a depersonalized group member rather than an idiosyncratic individual - they self-stereotype
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Depersonalization
when group membership is salient, individuals come to see themselves in terms of the shared features that define the group membership, thinking and behaving as a group member rather than as a unique individual
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Meta-contrast principle
group members exaggerate similarities within the group and differences with other groups
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Self-esteem
an individual's personal evaluation of their own self-concept
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Demanding aspect of parenting
controlling, imposing rules and punishments
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Responsive aspect of parenting
warm and supportive
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Authoritative parenting
place a lot of demands on their child, imposing rules on them and disciplining them for disobedience but they are also responsive, supportive and warm
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Authoritarian parenting
overly strict and demanding, failing to be responsive to the child's needs
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Permissive parenting
responsive but not strict enough, indulging their child's every desire
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Mood regulation
people with high self-esteem are better at regulating their mood than those with lower self-esteem and are better able to react constructively to life events
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Self-assessment
people are motivated to hold an accurate self-perception and seek out information which will help them to do so
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Diagnostic tests
evaluate the performance of an individual and distinguish their performance from the performance of others, when evaluating the self
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Self-verification
people are motivated to confirm their existing self-perceptions and so often seek out similar others who are most likely to do so
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Self-enhancement
people are motivated to hold a positive self-image and are selectively biased toward information that helps them to see themselves in a positive light
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Self-affirmation theory
the idea that people respond to threats to self by affirming positive aspects of themselves, allowing them to maintain a positive self-concept
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Self-serving attribution bias
we have a pervasive tendency to attribute successes to internal, personal attributes and failure to external factors outside of our control
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Including others in the self
our self-concept cognitively overlaps with the self-concept of close friends and romantic partners
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Extended contact effect
just knowing memebers of the ingroup who have friends in an outgroup reduces prejudice
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Social change strategy
low status group members compete with the high status group to improve their status relative to that group
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Social creativity strategy
low status group members finding new dimensions on which they compare more favorably
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Dis-identify
strategy which members of a low status group use to maintain a positive self-concept by distancing themselves from the group, disregarding he importance of that group membership
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Basking in reflected glory
people often derive a positive self-concept from the achievements of other group members even if they were not personally instrumental in those achievements
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Cutting off reflected failure
when a group is unsuccessful, group members may limit damage to their own self-concept by distancing themselves from the group. However, this strategy is only used by individuals for whom the group is not highly important
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Individualist culture
culture that promotes individual goals, initiative and achievements, encouraging people to view themselves as unique and independent individuals - US, UK
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Collectivist culture
culture that promotes conformity, and actions that promote the best interests of the group rather than its individual members, placing high value on cooperation, social support and respect for others - China, India
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Bicultural
people who are adept at dealing with both cultures (their own and their host society's)
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Alternation model
an individual may successfully take part in two different cultures by understanding the cultural assumptions that guide attitudes and behavior in both, and switching smoothly between the two depending on the social context
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