Preface and Chapter 1: The Self

behavior that takes place in a social context and results from interaction between individuals

study of social behavior

tentative predictions or explanations for an observation or phenomenon that can be empirically tested

the extent to which an association between an independent variable and a dependent variable reflects a causal relationship between the two

the extent to which the results of research can be applied to circumstances outside the specific setting in which the research was conducted

environmental cues that make participants aware of what the experimenter expects to find or how participants are expected to behave

subtle cues or signals that are given out by an experimenter who knows the experimental hypothesis

the reanalysis and interpretation of information collected by others for a different purpose

fundamental part of every human, a symbolic construct which reflects our consciousness of our own identity

• psychological state in which people are aware of their traits, feelings and behavior
• realizations of oneself as an individual entity

are of the frontal lobe in the cerebral cortex responsible for monitoring/controlling intentional behavior

when an individual temporarily becomes aware of private, personal aspects of the self

when reflecting on one's feelings intensifies them with private self-awareness

more accurate self-knowledge with private self-awareness

more aware of true beliefs and acting in line with them with private self-awareness

when a person is aware of public aspects of themselves that can be seen and evaluated by others

concern about being evaluated by others in public self-awareness

if a person's actual public image does not match their desired public image, public self-awareness can lead to this

more likely to conform to group norms even if it goes against their normal attitudes in public self-awareness

chronic self-awareness

experience more intense emotions, more likely to remain true to personal beliefs, and have more accurate self-perceptions

more likely to adhere to group norms, avoid embarrassing situations, concerned with own physical appearance, and likely to judge others based on their physical appearances

cognitive structures that represent the knowledge we have about a particular concept or type of stimulus

we are self-schematic on a particular self-schema if it is highly embedded in our self-concept; this is likely to be the case for a self-schema that we are extreme on, that is particularly important to us, and for which we are certain that the opposite is not true

occurs on a dimension if it is not important to you and does not reflect who you are

theory proposing that we use our self-awareness to assess whether or not we are meeting our goals and, if not, make efforts to improve the self in line with these goals

compare the self against one of two standards; public or private based on type of self-awareness

change in behavior in order to meet the chosen standard

re-compare self against public or private standard

if self and standard align with each other, the individual exits the self-regulation loop

according to this theory, we compare the self to two points of reference, the ideal self and the ought self. Discrepancies between actual and ideal self can lead to dejection-related emotions and discrepancies between actual and ought self lead to agitation-related emotions

reflects how we are at present

point of reference which reflects how we would really like to be

represents the traits or characteristics that an individual believes they should possess, based on a sense of duty, responsibility or obligation

theory that proposes that we form a definition of the self by comparing ourselves with those around us

Tesser proposed that comparison with someone who is successful results in self-reflection or social-comparison, depending on whether that success is relevant domain, and on whether we are certain of our own performance in that domain

associating ourselves with the success of close others

comparing our achievements with the achievements of others who we believe are outperforming us

• 1. exaggerate the ability of successful target
• 2. change the target of comparison
• 3. distance the self from successful target
• 4. devalue the dimension of comparison

unique, personal aspects of the self - personality traits and personal preferences

defined by our relationships with significant others

aspects of the self that reflect relationships with other individuals and groups - family status

theory which proposes that when our membership in a particular group is salient, it is our social self rather than our personal self that guides our self-concept, attitudes and behavior - this explains how affiliation to groups influences behavior

reflects idiosyncratic aspects of the self, including our personality traits and our close relationships with other individuals

reflects our membership in a particular group, and incorporates the attitudes, behaviors and social norms associated with that group

a collection of shared beliefs about how group members should think and behave

an extension of social identity theory which proposes that when an individual's social identity is salient they come to see themselves as a depersonalized group member rather than an idiosyncratic individual - they self-stereotype

when group membership is salient, individuals come to see themselves in terms of the shared features that define the group membership, thinking and behaving as a group member rather than as a unique individual

group members exaggerate similarities within the group and differences with other groups

an individual's personal evaluation of their own self-concept

controlling, imposing rules and punishments

warm and supportive

place a lot of demands on their child, imposing rules on them and disciplining them for disobedience but they are also responsive, supportive and warm

overly strict and demanding, failing to be responsive to the child's needs

responsive but not strict enough, indulging their child's every desire

people with high self-esteem are better at regulating their mood than those with lower self-esteem and are better able to react constructively to life events

people are motivated to hold an accurate self-perception and seek out information which will help them to do so

evaluate the performance of an individual and distinguish their performance from the performance of others, when evaluating the self

people are motivated to confirm their existing self-perceptions and so often seek out similar others who are most likely to do so

people are motivated to hold a positive self-image and are selectively biased toward information that helps them to see themselves in a positive light

the idea that people respond to threats to self by affirming positive aspects of themselves, allowing them to maintain a positive self-concept

we have a pervasive tendency to attribute successes to internal, personal attributes and failure to external factors outside of our control

our self-concept cognitively overlaps with the self-concept of close friends and romantic partners

just knowing memebers of the ingroup who have friends in an outgroup reduces prejudice

low status group members compete with the high status group to improve their status relative to that group

low status group members finding new dimensions on which they compare more favorably

strategy which members of a low status group use to maintain a positive self-concept by distancing themselves from the group, disregarding he importance of that group membership

people often derive a positive self-concept from the achievements of other group members even if they were not personally instrumental in those achievements

when a group is unsuccessful, group members may limit damage to their own self-concept by distancing themselves from the group. However, this strategy is only used by individuals for whom the group is not highly important

culture that promotes individual goals, initiative and achievements, encouraging people to view themselves as unique and independent individuals - US, UK

culture that promotes conformity, and actions that promote the best interests of the group rather than its individual members, placing high value on cooperation, social support and respect for others - China, India

people who are adept at dealing with both cultures (their own and their host society's)

an individual may successfully take part in two different cultures by understanding the cultural assumptions that guide attitudes and behavior in both, and switching smoothly between the two depending on the social context